A Format Paper Essay Example for Free

A Format Paper Essay Paragraphs in a Poetry Analysis Essay: Note: It is important to follow the guidelines for each paragraph as you would a cooking recipe. In other words, for each body paragraph, follow the simple ingredients. Format/Recipe for an Introduction: a). Write one to two sentences that briefly summarize the poem. Your first line should state the name of the poem, the poet’s full name, and the speaker’s intent or main idea. Note: For example, if you were writing about Shakespeare’s Sonnet 18, your first line would look something like, â€Å"William Shakespeare’s ‘Sonnet 18’ discusses the conflict that the speaker faces in trying to preserve the beauty of a young and innocent man. † Notice how this opening line follows the above instructions. b). Write about to three sentences that allow you to transition to the element that you will be discussing in your paper. This part is not your argument; this part is designed to transition yourself and your reader to the main point of your paper. ). Write a one to two sentence thesis statement. Your thesis statement will state your overall argument and include at least three rhetorical devices that you will analyze in order to support your argument. Note: For an in-depth discussion on constructing a solid thesis statement for this type of essay, feel free to refer to my previous article in the link provided here: Thesis Statement for a Poetry Analysis Essay Format/Recipe for Body Paragraph 1: a). Write one to two sentences that provide a discussion of your argument. Be sure to also mention one rhetorical device that you will use for support. This part of your paragraph should explain your argument and explain how and why the rhetorical device supports your claim. b). Quote a relevant line/lines that illustrate the rhetorical device that you are discussing, and make sure the quote is relevant to your argument. c). Write about two to three sentences that analyze this quote. Your analysis should reinforce your argument and your discussion of the rhetorical device. d). Write one closing sentence to seal off the paragraph. Format/Recipe for Body Paragraph 2: ). Using a transitional phrase, write one to two more sentences that further discuss your argument. Also, mention another rhetorical device that you will use for support. Your rhetorical device should be different from the first one that you discussed. However, this paragraph is set up just like body paragraph 1. b). Pick another relevant line(s) that support your claims about the second rhetoric al device. Again, make sure that the line(s) are relevant to your argument. c). Have about two to three more sentences that provide an analysis of these quoted lines. Just like body paragraph 1, your analysis should support your argument and the rhetorical device that you are discussing. d). Provide one closing sentence that seals off your paragraph. Format/Recipe for Body Paragraph 3: a). Starting with another transitional phrase, write one to two sentences that discuss your overall argument even more. Just like body paragraph 1 and 2, this paragraph will also include a discussion of a rhetorical device that proves your argument. Your rhetorical device needs to be a different from your first and second body paragraphs. When it comes to content and organization, body paragraph 3 will look just like body paragraph one and two. b). Provide a different line or lines that further emphasize your argument about your third rhetorical device. These lines need to relate to your argument. c). Just like body paragraph 1 and 2, include about two to three sentences that analyze your quoted lines. Just like body paragraph 1 and 2, your sentences should prove your argument, and show the reader how the rhetorical device that you are discussing illustrates your claims. d). Seal off your paragraph with one concluding sentence. Format/Recipe for a Conclusion: a). Write about one to two sentences that re-mentions your thesis statement from letter â€Å"c† in your introduction. Be sure to re-phrase your sentence structure so that you are not repetitive. b). In about three to four sentences, re-mention the rhetorical devices that you discussed to support your argument, and reiterate how these rhetorical devices proved your point. c). Write about two intelligent closing sentences that offer your reader some insight or philosophy about the poem that you wrote about. Editing:

Kenya contributions of foreign aid to economic development

Kenya contributions of foreign aid to economic development Foreign aid is the transfer of capital, goods and services from one country to another. This aid may be given or transferred in form of capital transfers or technical assistance and training for either military or civilian purposes. Foreign aid is often given with conditions attached such as requirement that all or part of it maybe capital be used goods from the donor country or company given as a grant with no repayment obligation or a loan with a condition that the recipient country or nation purchase goods or services with the aid from the donor nation or company. These aids can be classified in to two: Bilateral aid Multilateral aid Bilateral aid is aid transferred from one single state or one country to another. Multilateral aid is aid transferred from alliances of multiple states e.g. international monetary fund. Development on the other side is a social phenomenon and it describes sources that are associated with human beings. It is the extension of the theoretical or practical aspects of a concept, design, discovery, or invention. A process of economic and social transformation which is based on complex cultural and environmental factors and their interactions. It can also be defined as a process of adding improvements to a parcel of land, such as grading, subdivisions, drainage, access, roads, utilities. All these can be used to describe development as the transition from a state of poor livelihood to an improved better state. A multinational corporation is a corporation that has its production facilities or other fixed assets in at least one foreign country and makes its major decision of management in a global context. In production, marketing, research and development and labour relations the multinational corporation makes its decision in terms of the host countrys customs and traditions. In finance many of its problems such as the need to shelter working capital from the risk of devaluation , or the choices between owning or licensing have no domestic counterpart. In addition to foreign exchange risks and the special business risk of operating in unfamiliar environments, there is an issue of political risk that sovereign governments may interfere with operations or even terminate the operations. Corporations invest in other countries for a number of reasons that include opening new markets or holding into the existing ones, to get new sources of raw materials and agricultural production, to take advan tage of cheap resources like labour and others. Some critics argue that these transnational corporations work solely in their own best of interest and exhibit no loyalty to the countries in which they are incorporated. CONTRIBUTIONS: Foreign aid had a lot of contribution to the economy of Kenya some that are positive and others negative. The use of foreign aid in the modern era began in the 18th century this was when Prussia subsided some of its allies. It then developed in to more sophisticated instrument of foreign policy after World War II. International organizations such as United Nation Relief and Rehabilitation Administrations were created to provide aid to countries affected by war and newly freed colonies. About 15% of foreign aid is provided by international bodies while the rest by various non-governmental organizations, Inter national Development association, multinational corporations and the International Finance Corporation: regional development Banks, the UN Development program, the European Development Fund and special agencies of the United Nations such as Food and Agriculture Organization. U.S. Corporations have various motives for establishing a corporate presence in other countries. The main possible motive is the desire of growth. In this case a corporation may have reached plateaus in meeting domestic demands and anticipate little additional growth and so a new foreign market might provide opportunities for new growth. Also through direct foreign investment a corporation may bypass high tariffs that prevent its goods from being competitively priced this is all done because of some corporations desire to escape protectionists policies of an importing country. Other motives include preventing competition and reducing cost. Preventing actual or potential competition from foreign nations is by acquiring their businesses and on the other side reducing cost can be attained through the use of cheap foreign resources like labour in developing countries. Some corporations can lower their costs by shifting some or all of its production facilities to other countries. This can also be done as they have the ability to use foreign subsidiaries to minimize their tax liability. The rise of multinationals which is a relatively recent occurrence has resulted to a great deal of legal ambiguity as they can operate in many area codes. Multinational corporations (MNCs) engage in useful and morally defensible activities in Third World countries Kenya being one of the countries and they have been receiving credits for the activities. Some of the significant activities that these MNCs did was extending of opportunities for earning higher incomes and also opportunity of consuming improved quality of goods and services by people living in areas below the poverty line. Although the MNCs came to Kenya with good intentions, they have misrepresented by fearful and ugly images of Marxists and the Dependency Theory advocates. Because many of these MNCs firms originate from industrialized countries including the U.S., the U.K., Canada Germany France and Italy, they have been viewed as instruments for the imposition of western cultural values on third world countries rather than allies in their economic development. Thus some proponents of these views urge for the expulsion of this firms while others less hostile have argued for their close monitoring or regulation by Third World governments. Close observation or supervision of the nature and activities of the MNCs in the Third World countries reveal a positive image of the firms as the allies in development process of these countries inclusive of Kenya. For the greater wellbeing of the majority of Kenyas poor, it is important that the positive contributions of these firms to the economies become more diversely understood. Even though MNCs may be primarily motivated by profits and low cost to invest in Kenya, the morality of their activities in improving the living standards of Kenyan families, Kenyans should not be obscured through misperceptions or misrepresentations. In Kenya, the firms might have been acknowledged through their high wages to local employees than what they would have earned elsewhere. Also higher rents for land and buildings contributed to their acknowledgement. As much as Kenyans believed they were earning higher wages and rents, the MNCs argued that the wages were still low as compared to wages and rents paid to employees and owners of land and buildings in the developed countries. The above explanation on how wages are paid to employees in Kenya and the developed countries but on the other hand unless workers find it most profitable to work for MNCs at the wages they offer, they would choose employment elsewhere . Similarly unless MNCs can make as much profit as they can make at home as well as compensation for the additional risks taken to invest in Kenya or Third World countries, including the risk of asset satisfaction by a hostile future government they would not venture into those parts of the world. Thus, there has to be net benefits for al parties in transaction that is multi national corporations and the workers or foreign employees for the transactions to exist. However the comparison misses several key points. For example the working conditions of developing countries e.g. Kenya and the working conditions of developed countries were not the same standard. The skills or educational levels of workers in Kenya and those of developed countries are different. The amount of machinery and equipment handled by workers in developed countries are different as compared to the ones that are used in Kenya or in the developing countries. In short the output generated by developed countries is higher than the output generated in the developing countries. The company, who is a major contributor of foreign aid in the world which Kenya is one of the beneficiaries, is SMART Company. There exists a number of smart aid programs achieving results across Kenya in different ways such as fighting disease, boosting agriculture, promoting literacy, helping in trading and attracting investments, giving power or encouraging Kenyans to fight corruption and hold their own governments to account. The smart company has aid in putting Kenyans in school or educating them and has helped in reducing malarial deaths rate. Most of the people living in Kenya are at high risk areas of malaria. A number of people have been dying of the dreaded disease but the aid programs established in Kenya together with the Kenyan government unveiled their ambitious strategy to deliver mosquito nets in in the ratio of two nets per family at risk. Within three years of the start of the program by the donors, case of malaria and death rate had been halved. This success was also brought about by delivering effective malaria treatment at lower costs to Kenyans. Kenya is working to expand access to primary health services particularly through the training of two health extension workers per village with the help of MNCs donors thirty thousand young women have been mobilized to transfer health skills to communities, a vital initiative towards a country where health services often fail to reach those in isolated rural areas. The training of these workers and the provision of disease test kits as well as drugs are all paid for by The Global Fund to fight AIDS, TB and malaria, all these leads to development. In Kenya as in many places in Africa, opening a bank account requires a minimum deposit which is often beyond the reach of poor families. In rural areas, banks can be far away and inconvenient to reach. M-PESA is money is a money transfer system which allows people to deposit, withdraw, and send money by mobile phone without a bank account. The model was piloted by Vodafone with assistance from U.K. department for international development (DFID). it was implemented in early 2007 by Safaricom, Kenyas largest mobile provider at the time. It now has approximately five million users. A worker in Nairobi can open an account at any M-PESA agent, in a local shop, a Safaricom dealer or a petrol station. He or she can deposit earnings into an M-PESA account and transfer money to family members via SMS. The recipients can then go to a local store in their village and cash the SMS using a secret code contained in the short message, and their identification card. Considering that mobile phone subscriptions in sub Saharan Africa grows by more than sixty percent annually. The investment climate facility (ICF) is an initiative that grew from the 2005 commission of Africa and started operations in July 2007. Its aim is to work with receptive African governments to make the continent an even better place to do business. It is currently active in ten African countries and working on four pan-regional projects and two other initiatives. The CIF is funded by eight donor agencies Germany, Ireland , the Netherlands, South Africa, the U.K., the African Development Bank and International Finance Corporation and nine companies Anglo American, the coca cola company, Microsoft, SABMiller, Sasol, Shell Foundation , Standard Bank, Unilever and Zain. The Alliance for Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA) is an initiative funded by international donors including the Bill and Melinda Gates foundation and the Rockefeller Foundation. AGRA works to enhance agricultural productivity in Africa, Kenya included by training small holder farmers supporting the development of high yielding seed varieties, and ensuring that farmers have access to good quality seeds, tools, and fertilizer. AGRAs Program for Africas Seed Systems (PASS) provides grants and scholarships to agricultural scientists who then take their knowledge to local communities, working with farmers to see which seed variety best suit their land. AGRA works on innovative ways to make these seeds and their supplies widely available to rural farmers. Since 2006, AGRA has trained and certified over 5000 new agro-dealers, and aims to reach 9000 by 2011. This is having a real impact to farmers: in 2006 in Western Kenya, for example a farmer had to travel a distance of about 17 km to an agro dealer to purchase seeds and fertilizer; today that distance is an average of 5 km. AGRA has also provided loan guarantees through which farmers can access credit to purchase supplies that0 will boost their yields and in this case encouraging development. Kibera in Nairobi, Kenya is of east Africa largest slums and the setting for the recent film, The Constant Gardener, which presents images of grinding poverty tempered by peoples spirit of endurance. It is because of this film that the MNC offers to train the local individuals business skills that will enable them to be self sufficient. This past summer, a six-person team that included two Cornell university graduates and one alumna worked alongside residents of Kibera and Nyota, about three and a half hours North West of Nairobi as part of a project called the Base of Pyramid (BoP) protocol. Headed by Johnson graduate school of managements center for sustainable global enterprise, the project seeks to design and test a new process by which large corporations can work closely with poor communities to create new business opportunity for themselves and the community. Kenya, which is home to a subsidiary of SC Johnson was the firs site chosen to test the protocol. As much as it hasnt been attempted anywhere before, this protocol leaves no doubt about the goodwill of multinational corporations in Kenya. This is related to aid as the company seeks to help those willing poor individuals in the country. This has brought development in Kibera residence. One of the team members, Erik simanis, a doctoral candidate at the Johnson school who co-directs the BoP protocol project said: we think that business partnership between corporations and poor communities, when undertaken in a spirit of mutual respect, can be a powerful way to serve the needs of these communities while creating new opportunities for growth and innovation in the company. Multinational companies in Kenya work hand in hand with the government during or when national disasters occur. For instance, during the 2008 drought season which saw many poor living Kenyan citizens who depended on agriculture as their main source of living get highly affected. This forced the government to seek foreign aid and assistance from donors and weel wishers. Varriour governments across the world donated and participated in the contributions, however, major multinational companies in Kenya took the drivers seat.; this corporationa donated various things varying from food to livestock. The Nokia mobile company, a major phone manufacturing company, donated many containers of maize flour and cooking oil to distribute to affected communities. Other companies such as Barclays Bank, Coca Cola, Nakumatt also participated. Nakumatt supermarket which has many branches across east Africa started a campaign to encourage it customers to donate o the needy. The company thus helped Kenyans assist other Kenyans. Realizing that building healthy communities involve more than just donating dollars, Toyota manufacturing companies runs Volunteers in Place Program (VIP). This program was developed to encourage and recognize team members in the company who volunteer to work in foreign aid while supporting the companies operating principle and firm belief to be a good corporate citizen. Through the years, Toyotas program has become an important volunteer network to respond to needs in the communities where the various Toyota company team members live. For many of Toyotas motor company team members, volunteering is a way of life. For others the desire to volunteer is there but help is needed to get them involved. Thats where the VIP program is most helpful to team members. In addition to volunteering to individual selected charities, team members are given the opportunity to support group volunteer activities and project sponsored by the Toyota Company. This has helped in development of Kenyas economy. TechnoServe is a leader in a movement that empowers people in the developing world to build businesses that break the cycle of poverty. Growing enterprises generate jobs and other income opportunities for poor people, enabling them to improve their lives and secure better future for their families. Since its founding in 1968 the U.S. Based non profit organization has helped to create or expand thousands of businesses benefiting millions of people in more that 30 countries. The Financial Times has rated TechnoServe one of the top 5 NGOs for corporate partnerships. TechnoServes corporate partners include Cagill, Kraft, Nestle-Nespresso, Olam International, Peets Coffee and Tea and Unilever among others. Charity Navigator has also awarded his highest foster ranking to TechnoServe. since it was founded in 2000, GM Global Aid has facilitated millions of dollars in donations for disaster relief worldwide. Through this program, GM and it national and international business units and the GM Foundation can quickly direct vehicles, services, or supplies as well as monitory contributions to charitable organization assisting in local disaster relief efforts. An essential component of our disaster relief efforts are that which allows GM employees and others worldwide to contributes funds to disaster relief. On an occasion, contributions from our employees are matched by GM Foundation and their contributions helped in development. The company who knows that no one can effectively tackle child hunger alone, the challenges are too large and complex. Partnerships with other businesses, governmental and non governmental organizations and communities around the world are the best way to achieve our objectives. Together for child vitality builds on Unilevers long tradition of responsible corporate behavior, delivered through businesses firmly rooted in local communities all round the world. World food program brings to partnership more than 40 years experience in providing food assistance to people mostly mothers and children, in worlds poorest countries. The agency has unique knowledge of their nutritional needs and food habits, coupled with logistical expertise and extensive government and health authority relationships. World food program is the worlds larges humanitarian organizations, fighting hunger worldwide and has become the worlds largest provider for school meals and take-home rations for poor children: school meals attract children too school and boost primary school enrolment, attendance, performance and completion as education contributes to development. CONCLUSION This among other contributions of multinational corporations in Kenya and other third world countries has enabled them make tremendous step in development. The government with little assistance from these corporations has been able to efficiently serve its most needy and poor people and thus their contributions are highly relevant and may be credited to most of Kenyas achievement in development. Foreign aid can bring a lot of development if implemented in the right way. It has a lot of positive contributions to economic development.

Free Expression: Copyright

Free Expression: Copyright Copyright has been called an engine of free expression because copyright provides economic incentives to persons creative works to promote free speech (expression). However, some also argues that copyright is an obstacle to free expression as permission from a copyright owner is compulsory and may have to pay a licence fee when using other persons work. Historically, copyright and free expression has been regarded as separate parts. Both have constitutional underpinnings, and protection of artistic and intellectual freedom originates in the First Amendment. When considering whether monopoly control by authors, artists, and media corporations unduly restricts the ability of other authors, artists and corporations to copy, share, criticize, parody, or build upon copyrighted works, the Supreme Court has said that the two systems are not really in tension but complement each other. (Heins, 2003) This essay covers the argument for both sides of copyright; an engine of free expression and an obstacle to free expression or at least, copyright is no longer an engine of free expression. A number of journals, articles and books are used to support these arguments. Then, concludes how accurate the statement copyright has been called an engine of free expression is. If there was no copyright, information would be distributed differently. There would probably be patrons of the arts, both governmental and private, and the content of that art would be shaped by patrons preferences. Also, without copyright the coordination difficulties and free riding problems would make it difficult for the less wealthy to aggregate their resources and fund creativity. Conversely, copyright encourages creators/inventors toward works that may prove popular with some market segment. The desire to give a mass audience what it will pay for, while not dispositive of content, makes a significant difference in many creative decisions. Copyright encourages the creation and dissemination of the speech of those who seek economic incentives, decreasing the relative voices of those who create for personal satisfaction. (Tushnet, 2000) The Court has explained that copyrights purpose is to promote the creation and publication of free expression, and in 1985 the First Amendment (consists of the first 45 words of the Bill of Rights, ratified in December 1791, that protect the freedoms of religion, speech, press, assembly and petition. It serves as the blueprint for freedom of expression and religious liberty. (Paulson, n.d.)) stated that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦it should not be forgotten that the Framers intended copyright itself to be the engine of free expression. (Horowitz, 2009) These statements explain how copyright and the First Amendment accomplish the same goal the dissemination of new ideas through distinct means. Copyright pushes the dissemination by providing an incentive to create new expression while the First Amendment removes the obstacles in the way of that dissemination. (Hart, 2010) Therefore, copyright, in short, promotes freedom of speech. For example, Netanel, in his guest-blogging: Copyrights Paradox (2008), said that Copyrights economic incentive for the creation and dissemination of original expression is just one way that copyright promotes speech. and says that the copyrights effect is both qualitative and quantitative. For example, it supports a sector of authors and publishers who look to the market, not government patronage, for financial sustenance and who thus gain considerable independence from government influence. Moreover, he explains that copyright does not further free speech merely by providing pecuniary incentives and support. It also symbolically reinforces certain values and understandings that underlie our commitment to free speech.. He concludes that by encouraging authors, copyright gives the laws imprimatur to the social and political importance of individuals new original contributions to public discourse. On the other hand, there are some views that copyright restricts the free expression. In the nineteenth century, unlike today where the principal beneficiaries of copyright protection are recording companies, film producers, and other media corporations, they were individual authors and dramatists. During that century copyright was protected for a relatively short time before the work entered the public domain: in the United Kingdom, fourteen years (with a possible renewal for a further fourteen years) under the Statute of Anne of 1709, or subsequent to legislation in 1842, the authors life plus seven years. After that period works could be freely copied, so the right had much less impact on freedom of expression than it does now when the standard term of copyright is life plus seventy years. Further, during the nineteenth century, copyright was for the most part protected against literal copying, and not against translations and adaptations, where the copier, at least to some extent , adds creative or original features in the preparation of the infringing work. (Barendt, 2005, p.252) So, contrast to the nineteenth century, today we have a lot of restrictions on our expression with the copyright. Moreover, although the standard term of copyright is life plus seventy years, there is a case where this was broken. With the Sony Bono Act, Congress extended Americas already hefty copyright terms across the board for 20 years, thereby freezing the public domain at its 1928 dimensions. (Heins, 2003) Moreover, as copyright creates private monopolies in expression, a copyright holder can prohibit or permit the use of his/her copyrighted expression, or demand a licence fee. Also it is concerned that copyright does not limit the dissemination of ideas or the spread of news and information, but only the use by others of the expression of the holder of copyright. Melville Nimmer, a distinguished writer on many areas of free speech law as well as a great copyright lawyer, contended that in this way First Amendment concerns were met by copyright legislation. The conclusion is unsatisfactory as it does not do justice to the point that sometimes it is important for an infringer to use the very words or other distractive expression of the copyright holder, if he is effectively to communicate his ideas, perhaps the sentiment that the quoted or parodied work is meretricious. Nimmer himself did not think the distinction worked where an idea and its expression are inseparable, as in a news pho tograph. Reproduction of film of the assassination of President Kennedy or of the famous photograph of the My-Lai massacre in Vietnam necessarily used a distinctive form of expression in order to communicate the character of the particular news event. (Barendt, 2005, p.249) From the book Copyrights Paradox (2008), Netanel said Copyright does provide an economic incentive for speech. But it may also prevent speakers from effectively conveying their message and challenging prevailing views. Netanel explains this with a best-selling novel The Wind Done Gone by Alice Randall as an example. Randal uses the setting and character of Margaret Mitchells Gone with the Wind, from the viewpoint of a slave. Contrast to Mitchell, Randall focuses on miscegenation and slaves calculated manipulation of their masters. However, Mitchells heirs brought a copyright infringement action against Randalls publisher. Although the Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals immediately vacated the injunction, a Georgia district court preliminarily enjoined the Randalls novels publication due to unabated piracy. Natanel added that It held that by barring public access to Randalls viewpoint in the form of expression that she chose, the trial courts order acted as a prior restraint on speech, standing sharply at odds with the shared principles of the First Amendment and copyright law. He also added that Indeed, while Randall eventually emerged victorious, not all courts have proven as solicitous of First Amendment values as the Eleventh Circuit panel that lifted the ban on her novel. Netanel, again, in his guest-blogging: Copyrights Paradox (2008), throws a question, in the digital age, does copyright law still serve as the engine of free expression? He explains that, in the Internet many of original expressions are distributed without any claim of copyright by its author (or at least without any effort to use copyright to prevent copying). Many Internet speakers are volunteers, happy to exchange and express their views without any expectation of monetary remunerations. Others make their creative expression available for free to enhance their reputation or sell related products. In addition, he suggested that the claim that copyright is engine of free expression must rest on an argument about copyrights incremental speech benefits. He argues that if we are to believe that copyright continues to be necessary to promote free speech, we must posit that (1) the copyright incentive generates the creation and dissemination of original expression over and above the rich array of speech that would be available even without copyright and (2) this additional copyright-incented expression has independent First Amendment value. The First Amendment value means it enables citizens to express their thoughts and beliefs in a free society. (Paulson, n.d.) As he argues in his book Copyrights Paradox, copyright does have those (as stated above) incremental benefit. Many works require a material commitment of time and money to create, for example, numerous full-length motion pictures, documentaries, television programs, books, products of investigative journalism, paintings, musical compositions, and highly orchestrated sound recordings constitute such sustained works of authorship. It is generally far too expensive and time-consuming to create such works, let alone create with the considerable skill, care, and high quality that the best of such works evince, to rely on volunteer authors. Nor are alternative, non-copyright business models necessarily more desirable than copyright. For example, we might not want our cultural expression to be populated with product placement advertising or devalued by treating it as a mere give-away for selling other products. Netanel also added that many of these types of works have considerable First Ame ndment value. He said while copyright is no longer THE engine of free expression (if it ever was the sole engine), it remains a vital underwriter of free speech (Netanel, 2008). By saying this, he recognizes that, although the copyright cannot be said to be an engine of free expression, it is still an important factor in promoting the free speech. In conclusion, it is clear that copyright has been an engine of free expression. The Court explained that copyrights purpose is to promote the creation and publication of free expression and the First Amendment stated that Framers intended copyright itself to be the engine of free expression. Giving economic incentive is the one way of promoting free expression. Turchnet (2000) and Hart (2010) argue that copyright encourages the creation and dissemination of the speech of those who seek economic rewards, decreasing the relative voices of those who create for personal satisfaction. Also Netanel, in his guest-blogging: Copyrights Paradox (2008), argued same statements. Moreover, he explained that copyright also symbolically reinforces certain values and understandings of that underlie our commitment to free speech. However, some argues that copyright is not an engine of free expression. Barendt (2005) explained that there are more protections for copyrights than before so it made people harder to express their ideas. Also Netanel (2008) said copyright can prevent speakers from effectively conveying their message and challenging prevailing views. He gives an example of novel The Wind Done Gone by Alice Randall to support his arguments. Although the court later void the injunction, a Georgia district court preliminarily enjoined the Randalls novels publication due to unabated piracy In here, the courts order acted as a prior restraint on speech, and opposite to the First Amendment and copyright law. Barendt (2005) also argued that as copyright creates private monopolies in expression, a copyright holder can prohibit or permit the use of his/her copyrighted expression, or demand a licence fee. Therefore, we should not say the statement that copyright is an engine of free expression is accurate as it has opposite arguments with evidences (; level of accuracy is low). As long as it promotes free expression (or speech) it can be said that the copyright is an engine of free expression but prior to that, copyright law should be loosen so that people can more freely express their ideas/speech effectively. Also, the Court needs to well-understand the meaning of First Amendment and copyright laws to prevent cases like Alice Randals. This way, the statement will be more accurate. So we should not only protect copyright owners too much, rather we should allow people to use some concepts or meanings of others (copyright owners) to build/create new expressions effectively. History of Russian Architecture: 1924 1932 History of Russian Architecture: 1924 1932 Russian architecture since the eleventh century up to the early 20th century was predominantly religious. For many centuries, churches were the only buildings that were constructed out of stone. However, the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the influence of the Suprematism movement of 1915 brought about the birth of Constructivism, the modernistic architectural style of Russia from 1924-1932. The brief period that followed the 1917 Revolution marked the beginning of the influence of the avant-garde Constructivist movement in the structure and design of major buildings. It enjoyed a short popularity until the late 1920s when it was repudiated by the more conservative Stalinist-era architecture (Russian Art, 2005). The principles of Constructivism theory come from three main art movements that evolved in Europe during the early part of the 20th century: Russian Suprematism, Dutch Des Stijl, or Neo Plasticism, and the Bauhaus in Germany (Constructivism, n.d.). In early 20th century Russia, particularly in 1917, there was a series of revolutions that eventually destroyed the autocracy of the Tsar. This series of revolutions led by the workers of Russia under their leader Vladimir Lenin was known as the Russian Revolution. The February Revolution in March of 1917 focused on St. Petersburg. During this time, the Soviets, or workers councils, delegated to the members of the Imperial Parliament the task of governing Russia and overthrowing Nicholas II, the Tsar during that time and the last of the Tsars. Meanwhile, the Soviets, led by the socialists or Bolsheviks, had the full allegiance of the lower-class citizens and workers as well as the political left. The Bolsheviks then formed workers militias. In the October Revolution that followed, the Bolshevik party under the command of their leader Vladimir Lenin, as well as the workers councils, overthrew the Provisional Government in St. Petersburg. Eventually, the success of the revolution paved the way for the birth of the USSR. After this series of events, peasants took over the lands previously owned by the vassals and redistributed land. This also marked the beginning of communal existence especially among the working classes, which led to the building of several constructivist buildings to house the first communities and to promote the ideology of communism (Mosley, n.d.). The Suprematism Movement of 1915 Suprematism is the main ideology in art that inspired Constructivism, which is the predominant architectural style of Russia during the period from 1924 to 1932. Suprematism lasted from 1915 to 1935 and is regarded as the first systematic school of modernism based on purely abstract pictorial compositions and geometric figures. It is a Russian art movement which was originally founded in Moscow in 1913 by the Russian painter Kazimir Malevich (Suprematism, 2007). Malevich advocated Suprematism as he believed that this is the perfect way to liberate art from the ballast of the representational world. He himself did this by producing art consisting of geometrical shapes flatly painted on the surface of the canvass. The goal of Suprematism is pure sensation and the pictorial space should be emptied of all symbolic content as in Surrealism. Malevich believed that art has to be decongested and cleared in order to show a new reality where the most important thing is thought as well as sensation. Malevichs Suprematism was also heavily influenced by the then avant-garde movements in art such as Cubism and Futurism (Suprematism, 2007). Suprematism, considering that it was based on Malevichs spiritual beliefs, was regarded as non-objective and apolitical. Aside from its use of only geometric shapes as the ones demonstrated by constructivist forms of architecture, Suprematism also emphasized the use of a limited color range, which explains the overall appearance of constructivist buildings (Suprematism, 2010). The Beginnings and Golden Age of Constructivism Early Influences. The development of Suprematism led to the movement toward a non-objective art, or art without a subject, in architecture. During the early years of Constructivism, the Russian modernists or avant-garde started embracing Cubism and Futurism (Constructivism, n.d.), which were two of the major sources of influence of Constructivism. Cubism was a 20th century modern movement popularized by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque in France and other parts of Europe from 1907-1921. Futurism, on the other hand, started in Italy in 1910 and from 1920-1940 was used in the construction of buildings despite the opposition of the fascist state which favored classical Roman imperial patterns. Tatlins Constructivism. In 1913-1914, the Russian and Soviet architect and painter Vladimir Tatlin used industrial materials to make and exhibit a number of relief constructions. He was inspired by Italian futurist Umberto Boccionis dream of plastic configurations in space and Pablo Picassos 3D collages, both of which he described by using the term Constructivism. Vladimir Tatlin was indeed the progenitor of this post-Revolutionary movement in architecture (Constructivism, n.d.). The Constructivist Manifesto. The year 1921 marked the appearance of the first Constructivist manifesto after the formation of the First Working Group of Constructivists in Moscow. The key artists were Vladimir Tatlin, Kasmir Malevich, Liubov Popova, Aleksandr Rodchenko, Vavara Stepanova, Vasily Kandinsky, Naum Gabo, Antoine Pevsner, El Lissitzky (Constructivism, n.d.). Actual constructivist theory and design practice began in 1922 in conjunction with the formulation of Vesnin brothers of the plan for the Palace of Labor, which was presented during a competition in 1922. However, actual building on a significant scale did not start until 1925 after the founding of the Union of Modern Architects, the official organization of the Russian Constructivist architects. By 1925, the first experimental office and residential buildings began their first appearance (Soviet Constructivism, 2007). The Union of Modern Architects. Towards the end of 1925, the Constructivists of Russia formed their own organization as a response to the decision of the Rationalists to establish the Association of New Architects, or ASNOVA, two years earlier in 1923. The Union of Modern Architects, or OSA, was initially composed of the brothers Aleksandr, Viktor and Leonid Vesnin, Mikhail Barshch, Andrei Burov, Moisei Ginzburg, Ginzburgs pupils Georgy Vegman, Ruvim Khiger, Vyacheslav Vladimirov, and the artist Aleksei Gan. Ivan Nikolaev and Ilya and Panteleimon Golozov decided to join later (Soviet Constructivism, 2007). While the Rationalists and ASNOVA focused on their search for purely aesthetic abstract forms, the Constructivists and OSA brought to life a novel, more practical architectural form, with reference to the purpose of the of the specific building, the materials used to construct it, its design and other conditions for production, and most of all the promotion of social development of Russia at that time. While the Rationalist emphasized the artistic or aesthetic side of architecture, the Constructivists favored its functional aspect (Soviet Constructivism, 2007). The Golden Age of Constructivism. The period from1927 to 1929 was considered the golden age of Russian avant-garde architecture. In these three years, a small group of Russian constructivist architects was able to build or plan the best-known buildings in the country. Among the structures built during this time were the Zuyev Club by Ilya Golosov, all the clubs by Konstantin Melnikov and his house, Lenins Mausoleum and the Narkomzem building by Aleksey Shchusev, Narkomfin by Ginzburg and Milinis, the Barshchs and Sinyavskys Planetarium, and Nikolaevs communal house for students (Soviet Constructivism, 2007). The Concept of Constructivism Constructivism, or Constructivist Art, is a term used to describe a type of non-representational, or totally abstract, relief construction, sculpture, painting, and kinetics. Constructivist buildings are usually ordered and often minimal, spatial, geometric, architectonic and experimental with how industrial material is used (Constructivism, n.d.). Furthermore, constructivism combined engineering and advanced technology with a dominant Communist social purpose. The movement produced several pioneering projects as well as prominent buildings and structures before falling out of favor during the early 1930s (Constructivist Architecture, 2010). Early constructivist art and architecture, just like Communism, was idealistic and seeking a new order that dealt with various social and economic problems. The appearance of several constructivist buildings and monuments is characterized by an emphasis on geometrical shapes like rectangular solids and cylinders, often intersecting each other or demonstrating asymmetry. Limited color range is another quality of constructivist buildings, with the choice of color as flesh or white signifying simplicity in the communal society. Red was also a very popular choice of color for the buildings and monuments like Lenins Mausoleum as this color was known to symbolize Communism. Both the geometrical emphasis and the limits in color are characteristics of Constructivist Architecture brought about by the influence of Suprematism, which was the most dominant art movement in Russia at that time (Suprematism, 2010). German Constructivism or the Bauhaus Architecture. The German word Bauhaus literally means House of Building or Building School. It refers to a school in Germany famous for the style and design that it taught. It is a form of modernist architecture that was founded by Walter Gropius and existed in Germany, some parts of Europe, the United States, and Israel from 1919 to 1933. The Bauhaus was an architectural ideology similar to Russian Constructivism and existed at the same time that it did. As Constructivism lost its favor because of Stalinist Neoclassicism, the Bauhaus gradually became inactive as the Nazi rose to power (Zisling, 2010). Just like Constructivist structures, Bauhaus buildings usually possess a cubic design and favor right angles owing to its geometrical figure. Nevertheless it may occasionally feature rounded corners as well as balconies. These buildings usually have an open floor plan and smooth facades (Zisling, 2010). Below is an example of a Bauhaus building in Tel Aviv, Israel: Taken from: http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_HYPERLINK http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society__Culture/Architecture/Bauhaus.htmlHYPERLINK http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society__Culture/Architecture/Bauhaus.html_Culture/Architecture/Bauhaus.html The Most Notable Constructivist Buildings The Rusakov Workers Club. One of the most notable examples of constructivist architecture inMoscow is the Rusakov Workers Club. It was designed by Konstantin Melnikov and was constructed from 1927 to 1928. On the outside, the club resembles a fan and in elevation, it is made up of a base and three cantilevered concrete areas for the seats. If the seating areas are combined, the building can seat over 1,000 people while each of these three cantilevered seating areas can be used as a separate auditorium. More conventional offices are found at the rear of the building. Moreover, the materials used in its construction are glass, concrete and brick. The constructivist identity of the building is expressed in its exterior, which the architect Melnikov himself described as a tensed muscle. On the outside, the three seating areas are seen as three large rectangular solids protruding from the walls of the building on the upper part. Melnikov naturally applied his own values to its construction by setting the Rusakov Workers Club, as well as other clubs he had designed, against the hostile city rather than belonging to it by employing sharply distinctive forms to make the structure appear individualist and unique against the general backdrop of urban buildings (Rusakov Workers Club, 2009). Taken from: http://www.housing.com/categories/homes/soviet-constructivist-architecture-1922-1936/rusakov-workers-club-1927-1928-konstantin-melnikov.html Svoboda Factory Club. Another constructivist building worth mentioning is the Svoboda Factory Club, or Maxim Gorky Palace of Culture. It was also Konstantin Melnikov who designed the building in 1927. It was completed two years later. For the general design of the Svoboda Factory Club, a conventional rectangular masonry block was used as a replacement for the original plan of using a flat elliptical tube, thus giving its design a constructivist spirit. The staircase was not curved but built straight, leaving the central rostrum column as the only curvilinear element in the structure. However, although the central rostrum column balances the left and right halves of the building, these halves are not identical with the north side end block significantly higher than the opposite one. This unique feature is a quality of the individualism of the constructivist movement. Nonetheless, the central rostrum hides such a discrepancy (Svoboda Factory Club, 2009). Taken from: http://www.housing.com/categories/homes/soviet-constructivist-architecture-1922-1936/svoboda-factory-club-1929-konstantin-melnikov.html Zuev Workers Club. Another prominent example of constructivist architecture is the Zuev Workers Club in Moscow. The architect Ilya Golosov designed the structure in 1926 and it was finished after two years. The original function of the building was to house various facilities for the workers of Moscow. The innovative and unique glazing treatment at its corner and the faà §ade formed from the dramatic intersection of a cylindrical glazed staircase and a stack of rectangular floor planes (Zuev Workers Club, 2009) prove to be very photogenic and make the Zuev Workers Club a symbol of Russian avant-garde architecture. These two unique qualities reflect a strong unique identity which is characteristic of Soviet Constructivism. The stack of rectangular floor planes has behind them a sequence of club rooms and open foyers that lead to a rectangular auditorium made up of 850 seats. Golosov, like Melnikov, was an enthusiast not for the logics but for the dynamic forms Constructivist design methods. In the Zuev Workers Club, this is evident in the immensely powerful drama of the cylinder intersecting the flat planes (Zuev Workers Club, 2009). Taken from: http://www.housing.com/categories/homes/soviet-constructivist-architecture-1922-1936/zuev-workers-club-1928-illya-golosov.html Narkomzem. Also known as Peoples Commissariat of Agriculture, Narkomzem was another noteworthy example of avant-garde architecture in early 20th century Russia. The building, which is now used today as a working ministry, was designed by Aleksey Shchusev and was finished in 1933. Taken from: http://www.housing.com/categories/homes/soviet-constructivist-architecture-1922-1936/narkomzem-1928-1933-aleksey-shchusev.html The most striking constructivist feature of the building is its corner details where a rectangular plane intersects with the cylindrical edge. Aside from the corner details, the overall asymmetry and the ribbon window located on the top floor remain to be the most striking features of Narkomzem (Narkomzem, 2009). Melnikovs House. The house of the architect Konstantin Melnikov, or simply known as Melnikov House, is one of the most notable examples of 20th century avant-garde architecture. It is located in Moscow and is located well away from the street. Taken from: http://www.housing.com/categories/homes/soviet-constructivist-architecture-1922-1936/melnikov-house-1927-1929-konstantin-melnikov.html Melnikov House is a building made up of a combination of both Futuristic and Classical designs consisting of two interlocking cylinders with the rear one noticeably taller than the front. The structure is also perforated with some sixty identical elongated hexagonal windows provided with Constructivist glazing bars. The asymmetry in the cylinders and the uniquely designed hexagons are testaments to Melnikovs commitment to Constructivism. The cylinders are made from stucco-covered bricks similar to those used in Russian churches and on the faà §ade are written the words KONSTANTIN MELNIKOV ARKHITECTOR (Melnikov House, 2009). Narkomfin. Another Russian building with constructivist design is the Narkomfin building. It was designed by the architects Ignaty Milinis and Moisei Ginzburg along with engineer Sergei Prokhorov. It was constructed from 1928 to 1930 for the purpose of providing apartments for the employees of the Peoples Commissariat of Finance, of the Narkomfin. The transitional, semi-communal apartment was supposed to introduce to the Soviet citizen the communal way of life and to introduce communism into the heart of domestic life and prepare the citizens to fully live a communal existence (Narkomfin, 2007). Narkomfin, for its constructivist elements, had a long elegant faà §ade with several rows of horizontal windows. It was topped with the Commissars penthouse making it look like and be called the ship. Upon its completion it turned out to be an ensemble composed of three buildings: the housing block, the communal block and a small laundry building. The Narkomfin has remained an icon of modernism in avant-garde architecture of Soviet Russia primarily because of these constructivist elements that make it stand out among the rest (Narkomfin, 2007). Taken from: http://ciudadlab.com/blog/2008/03/narkomfin-to-be-hotel.html The Narkomfin building was also known as the most perfectly realized building out of all the communal buildings constructed during the Constructivist Era or in the utopian years of the early Soviet Union. It was also considered the prototype for the modern European apartment blocks and housing estates. Now, the Narkomfin remains as a pilgrimage sites for historians and architects from all over the world. (Narkomfin, 2007). Communal House of the Textile Institute. Built from 1920 to 1930, the Communal House of the Textile Institute, or the Communal House for Textile Institute Students, in Moscow is considered Ivan Nikolaevs masterpiece and is another noteworthy architectural work of the Soviet constructivist era. Popularly called Nikolaevs House or The Hostel, the Communal House demonstrates the dom kommuna, or the 2000 adult apprentices shared cabins along an eight-storey block extending for a length of 200 meters. There was a creative mix of dining rooms and recreational spaces in the low block (Communal House, n.d.). The Communal House was actually built for textile students to live and study in while adopting a strict military communal fashion that starts with a wake-up call, and proceeds with exercise, shower, and study. The constructivist elements of the Communal House include half-round stair towers, the triangular staircase, and the vast rectangular volumes as well as the asymmetry demonstrated by the uneven intersections of the various planes in the faà §ade of the building (Communal House, n.d.). Taken from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nikolaev_commune_2008_stairs_01.jpg The Barshchs and Sinyavskys Planetarium. The Barshchs and Sinyavskys Planetarium, or the Moscow Planetarium, was established on November 5, 1929 and is considered at present a center of natural sciences. The planetarium is principally involved in reading public lectures and implementing scientific and artistic programs in cosmonautics and astronomy. In the observatory of the planetarium, one can watch the sunspots, the Moon, the planets and many other heavenly bodies with the use of a telescope (Moscow Planetarium, 2004). M. O. Barshch and M. I. Sinyavsky were responsible for the design of the planetarium and commenced the construction on September 23, 1928, the day of the autumnal equinox (Moscow Planetarium, 2004). The planetarium was actually one of the largest projection domes for any planetarium in the world, which makes this unique feature one of its most prominent characteristics as a symbol of avant-garde Soviet architecture. However, its apex was only 4cm thick (Monuments of Constructivism, 2007). Taken from: http://www.stardome.ru/english/english.html#BASIC1 Red Banner Textile Factory. Located in the former city of Leningrad, now St. Petersburg, the Red Banner Textile Factory was partially designed by the first foreign architect asked to design in the USSR, Erich Mendelsohn, in 1925 to 1926, and later designed by E. A. Tretyakov, S. O. Ovsyannikov, and Hyppolit Pretraeus until its completion in 1937 (Wandering Camera, n.d.). The Red Banner Textile Factory was a dynamic, futuristic large factory and was a most notable example of Soviet Constructivist architecture. The Red Banner Factory resembled a ship with the top part of it jutting out of the planes. There is also an asymmetry with the intersection of the cylindrical and rectangular sections of the building on the outside. These two constructivist features of the factory give it its unique identity and make it stand out (Wandering Camera, n.d.). Taken from: http://www.enlight.ru/camera/249/index_e.html Notable Architects of Russia from 1924-1932 Vladimir Tatlin. The Russian constructivist designer Vladimir Tatlin was considered the progenitor of Soviet Constructivism because of his revolutionary exhibits of relief constructions from 1913 to 1914 (Constructivism, n.d.). He was also responsible for the appearance of the Constructivist Manifesto in 1921 which paved the way for the first construction of a plan for a constructivist building in 1922 and the actual establishment of constructivist office and residence buildings in 1925 (Soviet Constructivism, 2007). Tatlin trained at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture as well as in the Penza Art School. It was after completing his formal studies that he joined a group of avant-garde painters and writers all over Russia. It was also during this period that he formulated several designs for a theater and participated in exhibitions (Vladimir Tatlin, 2010). Konstantin Melnikov. Melnikov was one of the big names in Soviet constructivist architecture, being the architect behind the Rusakov Workers Club, the Svoboda Factory Club and his own Melnikov House. Melnikov apprenticed as an engineer after attending the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. He studied architecture from 1912 to 1917 and it became his passion although he initially studied painting in 1905. As a romanticist and a supporter of Communism, Melnikov was an architect who had independence of mind and rejected the principle of method in design and instead focused on intuition as the most essential factor in expressing the social and symbolic meaning of an architectural form such as a building. In his works, Melnikov struggled to combine Classicism and Leftist Modernism and often designed his architectural masterpieces with explicit and symbolic historicism (Konstantin Melnikov, 2010). Ilya Golosov. A leader of Constructivism from 1925 to 1931, Ilya Golosov was the Russian architect responsible for the design of the Zuyev Workers Club in Moscow and communal housing in Ivanovo. Just like Tatlin and Melnikov, Golosov studied at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculture and Architecture. However, he also studied in the Stroganov School of Arts. He became an apprentice to the architects Igor Grabar and Alexey Shchusev, who is also a notable constructivist architect. He also worked as a military engineer and a teacher. His main impression with the works of the Vesnin brothers made him join the constructivist organization, or the OSA Group in 1925, and from then on he started designing his masterpieces. However, although Golosov was a champion of Constructivist architecture, he regarded the architectural philosophy of Constructivism only as ideal for exterior decoration but not for wholesomeness in terms of functional style. These contrasting views of his regarding Constructivism eventually made him abandon the avant-garde form of architecture in 1932 and settled for neoclassical architecture in his works, hence from Soviet Constructivism to Soviet Realism (Ilya Golosov, 2010). Ivan Sergeevich Nikolaev. Another name in the Soviet Constructivist architects hall of fame is Ivan Nikolaev. He was famous for the constructivist design and even the formulation of the rules and regulations of the Communal House of the Textile Institute built from 1929 to 1931. He devised a rather rigid and Communist procedure for the members of the training institute which was supposed to be followed through very single day: a wake-up call, exercise, shower and study. In addition Nikolaev was also famous for his modernist campus of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute. He, however, abandoned his constructivist beliefs in order to adopt Stalinist architecture (Constructivist Architecture, 2010). Aleksey Shchusev. Another prominent name in avant-garde Soviet architecture of early 20th century Russia was Aleksey Shchusev. Shchusev was responsible for the constructivist designs of the Kazan Railway Station, the Narkomzem, or Agriculture Ministry, building in Moscow, and most important of all, Lenins Mausoleum on Red Square, which he designed only in a stunning period of three days (Narkomzem, 2007). Another one of his constructivist designs was the Institute of Resorts in Sochi, which he designed from 1927 to 1931. Shchusev was tasked to design many more buildings after 1932 and some say that he was even the originator of Gothic skyscrapers in Moscow (Soviet Constructivist, 2009). Shchusev studied a the Imperial Academy of Arts from 1891 to 1897 and his travels to North Africa and Central Asia from 1894 to 1899 may have somehow influenced his partial non-adherence to pure Constructivism. It is also worth mentioning that even before Shchusev designed buildings, he was already tasked to restore church and to design a cathedral during the first ten years of the 20th century. His restoration of the St. Basil Church in Ukraine, his designs for the Trinity Cathedral in Pochayiv Lavra, and the Marfo-Mariinsky Convent in Moscow made him one of the best and most versatile architects of his time (Soviet Constructivist, 2009). Erich Mendelsohn. The expressionist architect Erich Mendelsohn was a German Jewish architect and the first foreign architect who was allowed by the USSR to work for them. In 1926, he partially designed the Red Flag Textile Factory in St. Petersburg. The constructivist design of the exterior of the factory made it resemble a ship. This particular masterpiece of Mendelsohn is similar to the Mossehaus, which he himself designed in Berlin. He also designed the rear view of the Einstein Tower in Potsdam and the Cohen House in London, all of which had designs similar to that of Soviet Constructivism. Mendelsohn studied architecture at the Technical University of Berlin and the Technical University of Munich, where he graduated cum laude in 1812. His initial work before he became an international architectural designer was as an independent architect in Munich (Erich Mendelsohn, 2010). Yakov Chernikhov. One of the champions of Russian Constructivism, not necessarily for his actual works but for his theories, was the name Yakov Chernikhov. Perhaps Chernikhovs only actual architectural achievement was the Red Nail Makers Factory, or Red Carnation Factory, built in St. Petersburg from 1930 to 1931. The rest of Chernikhovs fame is attributed to his written works. Chernikhov studied at the Odessa Art School where he taught drawing and sketching years later, and at the Academy of Arts at St. Petersburg where he graduated in 1925. He then joined the Constructivist movement and instead of concentrating on the actual practice of his profession, he wrote and published a series of books which showcased his constructivist architectural fantasies: Fundamentals of Modern Architecture, written from 1929 to 1930; Construction of Architectural and Machine Forms, written in 1931; and Architectural Fantasies: 101 Compositions, written in 1933. These three books did not only make him famous all over the world but also became a source of inspiration to many generations of architects. He had five more books published from 1934 to 1948 (Architect-artist, n.d.). His first book, Fundamentals of Modern Architecture, emphasized the origins of architectural forms, settings and principles, which, according to Chernikhov, are based on asymmetry, the harmony of the components, rhythm of the masses, rhythm of proportions and the shock of the expressivity of its elements (Fundamentals, n.d.). The ideals of the book are explicitly expressed by the words of Chernikhov himself: By rejecting naked, ascetic, boxed architecture, which offers no architectural saturation of space and does not satisfy our eye from the aesthetic side or the side of emotional experience, I tried through consonance of basic masses to achieve a truly expressive architectural image in new forms (Fundamentals, n.d.). A sample of Chernikhovs sketch in the Fundamentals is a constructivist geometrical model of a building like the one below: Taken from: http://www.icif.ru/Engl/cyc/oca/pages/OCA-167_1978-1-166-01.htm Chernikhovs second book, Construction of Architectural and Machine Forms, he enumerates the various architectural forms of the Industrial Age and defines the role and importance of machines in Constructivism. A sample of his sketch of a constructivist building from the Construction is as follows: Taken from: http://www.icif.ru/Engl/cyc/kamf/pages/35.htm Chernikhovs third book, Architectural Fantasies: 101 Compositions, is said to be the greatest book published during his life. It is all about the architectural forms in his mind which happen to be difficult and impossible to actualize during his time. In this book, Chernikhov underlines the role of architectural fantasies. He even defines them in his own words: Architectural fantasy stimulates the architects activity, it arouses creative thought not only for the artist but it also educates and arouses all those who come in contact with him; it produces new directions, new quests, and opens new horizons (Architectural Fantasies, n.d.). An example of his sketch of a constructivist building from his Architectural Fantasies is as follows: Taken from: http://www.icif.ru/Engl/cyc/101/pages/19.htm Decline of Constructivism A competition for a grandiose project for the Palace of the Soviets was held in 1932. The constructivists joined the competition with their best entries. However, there was an ever-growing criticism of Modernism as that time, and this affected as well all the Soviet Constructivism. The winning entry was therefore not constructivist but an eclectic Stalinist architecture project by Boris Iofan. By the end of the 1920s, Constructivism was eventually replaced by Postconstructivism, which featured buildings designed in a composite style and bore close resemblance to Neoclassicism (Constructivist Architecture, 2010).

Wilderness: History and Value Essay -- Nature Philosophy Papers

Wilderness: History and Value History From the very beginning of this nation's history, wilderness has been a fundamental ingredient. The first European settlers found and battled against it upon their arrival. The western explorers and wagon trains sought to wrestle farmland from the wilderness's grip to build cities, farms and homes. It was not until the reality of its finite availability, that it was viewed as anything other than an opponent and menace. These changing attitudes began a new battle for preservation and protection of the wilderness that remained. The nation's attitude transformation was testimony to a new focus and value for wilderness. This new disposition declared that the preservation and maintenance of wilderness is instrumental to our own emotional, spiritual and biological survival. The first European settlers began an extensive nation wide war on wilderness upon their arrival on the eastern shore. The war continued for many years and set the tone for America's relationship with its wilderness lands. Many of the nation's first European arrivals brought with them very Puritanical views regarding the appropriateness of order and disorder as well as fundamental Christian views (Kropf, 1997). In their minds, the unsettled and unestablished lands of the New World symbolized lack of order and therefore the absence of God. Along with disorderly lands there existed native inhabitants who, because they had not subdued the land-putting it to strict agricultural use-were innately inferior. All these attributes assigned to the Indians and the wilderness led the early settlers to firmly believe that the wilderness was the dwelling place of Satan. As God fearing Christians, their greatest calling was the elim... ...nd humanity will suffer. Furthermore, the contents of this continent which have shaped and influenced this nation will be forever lost. Bibliography Brower, David. (1996). Let the Mountains Talk, Let the Rivers Run. San Fransisco: Harper Collins Publishers. Drabelle, Dennis. (1984, Summer). Feral Explorations. Wilderness, pp.24-26. Hendee, John C., Stankey, George H., & Lucas, Robert C. (1990). Wilderness Management. Golden: North American Press. Kropf, Jesse A., "Images of the Overland Trail and Manifest Destiny: A Distortion of Reality". History 369: Dan Flores, University of Montana. Spring 1997. Nash, Roderick. (1967). Wilderness and the American Mind. New Haven: Yale UP. Nash, Roderick. (1984, Summer). Path to Preservation. Wilderness, 5-11. Oelschlager, Max. (1991). The Idea of Wilderness. New Haven: Yale University Press.

To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee :: To Kill a Mockingbird Essays

Scout Finch is not the stereotypical girl from the 1930’s. Agents the wishes of everyone around her, she grows up in overalls instead of dresses. Scout plays in the dirt and sand, instead of in the kitchen. In the novel To Kill a Mocking Bird, by Harper Lee, Scout is the wild spirited narrator, growing up in the small town of Maycomb. As she gets older, she learns mostly from her father Atticus how to interact with people. Scout learns to show dignity and respect to everyone, under any circumstances.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the beginning of the novel, the reader finds that Scout Finch is not the most peaceful girl. She fights boys quite often, and never backs down from a fight. One day Cecil Jacobs approached Scout and was taunting her because her father is â€Å"defending niggers†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"I drew a beam on him, remembered what Atticus had said, then dropped my fists and walked away.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It was not until Atticus had told Scout not to fight on his behalf, that Scout found the courage inside her to walk away. Her actions here show her respect for Atticus, and her dignity. She realizes now that fighting is not always the best way for her to solve her problems. Even after all the kids were calling her a coward, she had enough dignity to follow her father’s wishes and not fight.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Boo Radly often became the target of the children’s taunting. Scout had a set image of Boo in her head as a blood stained squirrel eater, even though she had never so much as seen him. That changed as she grew up.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"When we were small, Jem and I confined our activities to the southern neighborhood, but when I was well into the second grade taunting Boo Radly became passà ©.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As Scout grows, she starts to see Boo as a person, as apposed to some sort of an evil creature. By stopping her games, and the tormenting of Boo, she shows respect for him and shows dignity in herself.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Near the end of the novel, a mob of men from the town gather in front of the jail to lynch Tom Robinson. To there surprise Atticus is waiting there for them. Later Scout, Jem and Dill joined them. This was a very awkward situation for everyone there, and Scout tried to ease the tension by starting conversation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Atticus had said it was the polite thing to talk to people about what they are interested in, not about what you are interested in.

Macbeth Monologue Spoken by Banquo Essay

Banquo lies on the side of the river after being ambushed by Macbeths pass men. He reflects on Macbeths and his own behavior since the prophecies made by the witches, as well as reflecting on Fleance and the person he is to become. The nullify of Act III, Scene 3. After Banquos murder. (Lying) Here I lie, cold, wet, solely and betrayed on my death bed. Is this what I deserve? Have I been dealt a hand fair to the way I birth lived my life? No, I know that I lived my life justly. I acted on my beliefs and I was always loyal and honest to those I held dear. (Getting Up) I fought against the dreams of those predictions and proved myself worthy of what was told. I defended my character and spoke up for what I stood for. I would not weaken in the await of temptation. (Standing) Since the day on the heath where those foul hags told Macbeth and I our fates, Macbeth has not been himself. As if overcome by some evil spirit, he has changed his ways, actively seeking his future through deceit, wicked speculations and regicide, what I now no longer suspect him of, but think he committed. Firstly, Thane of Glamis, a title he already held. Following(a) was Thane of Cawdor, this he was named shortly after the predictions, he did nothing to by design receive the title but be his own character, a strong, passionate and loyal countrymen. The real Macbeth we all knew and respected. But the three prediction was the one that changed Macbeth, a title that toyed with his ambition. Being told he would become King I believe was the beginning of the end for him. Over time his aspirations led him to take a route the†¦

Case Study Toys

Principal of Management Case Study: Toys Galore The Case Toys Galore is a major manufacturer of toys which faces uncertainty about demand for its toys during the Christmas season. If there is a high demand for toys, and if Toys Galore: * Is fully able to meet this demand, then it makes additional revenue of $4m. * Is partly able to meet this demand, then it makes additional revenue of $3m * Is able only to supply at a low level, then it makes no additional revenue. If, however, there is low demand, then it makes no additional revenue.In July, Toys Galore has the option of expanding production. An expansion will cost $2m. If it expands in July, then it will be fully able to meet a high demand at Christmas. If it decides not to expand production in July, then it has another chance to expand in October. An expansion in October also costs $2m, but this late expansion does not leave the company sufficient time to fully meet high demand at Christmas; it can only partly meet any high demand . In October, however, the ABS announces the latest national income figures.Past experience suggests that income figures are high half the time and low half the time. Past experience also suggests that if there is a high national income figure, then there is a 80% probability of high demand, and if a low national income figure, a 80% probability of low demand for toys at Christmas. To summarize: by expanding production in July, Toys Galore is able to fully meet high demand for Christmas toys, if that occurs. By waiting until October, however, it can make the expansion decision on the basis of better information about Christmas demand. Abstract:In the above case study we see that the management of Toy Galore, a major manufacturer of toys faces uncertainty or a dilemma as how to cope up with the demand / supply and at the same time keep an eye on the expected revenues generated for/during the Christmas season. Moreover the company has to choose whether if they want to expand their pro duction during the month of July or October with low and high risk associated with the respective months. Factors affecting our decision: Before going on and making the decision the company has to look into the following important factors ) Calculated Risk Vs Returns: As mentioned in the case as there are many options that the company can opt for but all the options are to be looked in to with respect to the Risk associated with them and The Revenues / Returns generated with each of the option. Options of both expanding and Producing in the month of July or October to meet the Christmas Demand for toys and also the uncertainty or speculation that the income pattern might as well change which may / can affect the sales and the demand for the Toys produced. ) Certainty vs. uncertainty: As seen in the case study there is uncertainty that the demand of the toys may increase or decrease based on the historical trends and income patterns. Assuming that the production meets full demand the n the company makes maximum revenues i. e. Rise in the income results in the rise of the Demand, Rise in the Demand results in the rise of the Production and the Supply thus, Resulting in the Rise in Revenues. But one cannot ignore the uncertainty factor associated and present in the market environment.If the Income decreases then the whole scenario changes i. e. Decrease in the Income results in the decrease in Demand and supply, thus low revenues. 3) Market Competitors: Knowing that we are the major producer and Manufacturer of toys, we still can’t ignore the competition that exists or is entering the market. Any opportunity lost can prove to be a big opportunity for the competitors in the market. Suggestions with Reasoning: Based on the above factors I would advise the Toy Galore to; Invest and expand their production as it will not only help them in the short run but also in the long Run. Taking the decision to expand its production capacity doesn’t only means that it now has the capacity to produce more now and also in the long run but it also conveys a message of stability, strength and overall market dominance to our competitors * Start the production early i. e. in July and incase of any uncertainty or unforeseen event there should always be a backup plan or a contingency. * Play safe.There is a likelihood that revenues may increase more in October but again there is an old saying â€Å"Sometimes your best investments are the ones you don't make. † So I will advise the management to start production early in July. * Keeping the ABS reports at hand in case the income and the demand decrease during the Christmas season (keeping both directly proportional) resulting in low sales or stock pileup , we always have the option of after Christmas sales, which not only attract more buyers due to more discounts and decrease in the prices but also boost the revenues i. . ^Revenue = v Price * ^quantity. * Those who forget or ignore the past are doomed to repeat it. Market Speculations play an important role while making any managerial decision. The Company instead of ignoring the signs and news prevailing in the market should keep a close eye on the market, Historic Trends and keep in touch with the Statistical and Financial sectors so to keep on collecting the latest facts and figures which will always be helpful when it comes to making important decisions.