Application of TQM principles in manufacturing, Term Paper

Application of TQM principles in manufacturing, - Term Paper Example Introduction Quality assumes a multidimensional facet of business outcomes and activities. Various meanings attached to quality include conformance to specifications, performance, reliability, promptness, consistency, meeting customer expectations, hygiene etc. Organizations attach one or more of these attributes to their meaning of quality and thus strive towards achievement of all through Total Quality Management (TQM). TQM has been viewed in many ways by different scholars. A comprehensive definition would include what Hellesten and Klefsjo (2000) had used to describe TQM as, ‘a management system consisting of core values, techniques, and tools with the aim of increasing external and internal customers’ satisfaction with reduced resources. It aims at establishing a culture based on core values, and choose techniques, which support the values and tools suitable for the chosen techniques (as cited in Fredriksson, 2003; p.226). An evaluation of total quality management t hrough operations management strategies in manufacturing, service and nonprofit industrial sectors will be presented along with a general and critical review of these practices. Background: In the manufacturing sector, TQM concept was, in fact, revolutionized by the giant automotive company, Toyota, which was originally a Japanese native but currently a multinational setup. Daft (2008) candidly states, â€Å"Toyota is a model what happens when a company makes a strong commitment to total quality management,† (p.468). Although TQM was a concept that originated in the United States, its popularity and promising philosophy was grounded in quality management only after Toyota displayed its success from Japan. This was accomplished through steady performance over the years unlike other automotives of the West that ruled the market for short time; yet, Toyota’s success still remains, and is attributed to its TQM principles. Significance of Toyota’s way of working was realized by the rest of the world during 1990s through its highly efficient and fast design systems, most reliable and cost-efficient products and highly paid labor (Liker, 2004). Liker (2004) asserts that Toyota’s way of operations management, popularly referred to as the Toyota Production System, is a result of its quality management that goes beyond one’s belief along with congruent culture, referred to as the Toyota Way. A well-known service firm that attributes its success to TQM philosophy is Starbucks, the coffee shop that promises a delightful experience to its customers. Starbucks was started in 1971 at Pike Place Market, Seattle. More often, the name of this famous coffee place is accompanied by Howard Schultz, the salesperson that was instrumental in Starbucks’ immense success and later assumed the role of Starbucks’ CEO and Chairperson. Starbucks has recorded steady growth in the field of food and beverage industry during last 3 decades throug h its fierce competition, unmatched quality, delightful customer experience, cost-oriented operational strategies and the best human resources management practices. Starbucks is often quoted for its Total Quality Management practices and has been an example for many other entrepreneurial initiatives. Pahl (2009) highlights, â€Å"from a single store in Seattle, Starbucks has grown to operate more than 15000 stores across the world and employs more than 172,000

Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 34

Philosophy - Essay Example He believed that it was up to every person to contemplate and search into his soul to find out who he or she was. Except for very rare instances cited by a few historians, he hardly ever worked. He also never wrote. He prided himself on the questions he asked. Even this is not entirely true. He didn’t pride himself on anything. He never offered answers. One of his most famous sayings is:†I know that I know nothing.† This is a whole complex issue known as the â€Å"Socratic Problem.† Socrates was extremely cynical and many of his sayings were paradoxical because they contradicted common sense. Some of these are: â€Å"No one desires evil.† "No one errs or does wrong willingly or knowingly." "Virtue—all virtue—is knowledge." "Virtue is sufficient for happiness." "I know that I know nothing noble and good† (Irwin, 64). But by far his most famous saying is â€Å"I only know that I know nothing.† Plato wrote a series entitled Socratic Dialogues (The Republic, Apology of Socrates, etc.) in which he presented discussions between Socrates and other contemporary philosophers and between Socrates and his many students. As the only source of Socrates’ philosophical beliefs is Plato’s writings, it is difficult to distinguish those of Socrates’ beliefs from those of Plato. There are those who believe that Plato did, in fact, have his own philosophical orientation. There is controversy among scholars over what these were because of the difficulty of separating Socrates from Plato in Plato’s dialogues. Consequently, distinguishing the philosophical beliefs of Socrates from those of Plato and Xenophon is not easy and it must be remembered that what is attributed to Socrates might more closely reflect the specific concerns of these thinkers. The matter is complicated because the historical Socrates seems to have been notorious for asking questions but not answering them, claiming to lack wisdom concerning the subjects

Visual Culture Studies

Visual Culture Studies Visual Culture is everything that is seen, that is produced to be seen, and the way in which it is seen and understood. Representation is the way a person interprets symbols and images of a culture and the way these images explain why the world is the way it is . The Visual Culture approach acknowledges the reality of living in a modern world . Since childhood, a person’s brain uses representation of images into meanings to make sense of their world. For an example , It is that part of culture that communicates through visual means . If some special moment didn’t capture in your camera, you can digitally manipulate it on your computer. The queues are longer for the virtual reality at New York’s State Building . This virtual city will be joined shortly by Paris Las Vegas , copying the carefully manipulated image of the city of light. Life in this alter reality world is some times looks more pleasant than the real things, some time contrary to this. Way back in 197 9 same sex marriage was opposed by the united States Congress but later when the sitcom character Ellen shown on television , millions of people liked it. On the other hand , virtual reality has long been favoured by the armed forces as a training arena, bring it into practice in Gulf war at a huge cost of human life. This is known as visual culture. It is not just a part of your everyday life, it is your everyday life.. Pictorial presentation is an impactful way forward communication for observing the new visuality in the culture.   Nearly every form of visual media a person comes into contact with a photograph, which is undisputable evidence of an event. There is the myth of photographic truth, which means that photographs are subjective, yet can be manipulated and taken in different contexts. For an example the photographs taken by Nazi’s during the holocaust. The photographs denote that Nazis killed millions of people, but the photographs may also take on many connotative meanings of the two connotative meanings mentioned with the Nazi pictures they each hold different ideologies; ideas that form a culture. The ideas of ideology are usually taken in as the views of most of the population of a given culture, therefore ideologies define cultures. An American ideology is the belief in independent freedom while a communist ideology is communal sharing. How are these ideologies passed on in a culture? They start off in schools and places that people gather. Malls are filled with advertisements. There are ads that symbolize skinny brunettes wearing Chanel as the perfect woman, which is what most men and women tend to take as truth. Then there are ads to enlist people into the army, which give a message of a strong country run by individuals. The idea of interpretation is that people are made up of the different ideologies with which they come in contact with through out their lives. In this case a person might enlist in the army to be a part of a strong country while another might buy a Chanel dress to look like the woman in the ad. This newly visual existence may be confusing. For example the new visuality of culture is not the same as understanding it . Indeed the gap between the wealth of visual experience in contemporary cult ure the ability to analyse that observation marks either of the opportunities and the need for visual culture as a field of study. People get crazy to visuals of a skinny brunette wearing the Chanel clothes, rather than a overweight lady with red hair. This can be explained through psychoanalytic theory. It implies that people get feelings out of images because they tend to bond with them. In the case of the advertisements , a person might have been brought up in a culture that implies that skinny brunettes are the pretties of all. At a young age that person accepted that idea as true and holds it to this day, ending up buying a Chanel dress just because the lady in the ad is a skinny brunette. Visual culture is concerned with visual events in which information, meaning or pleasure is sought by the stakeholder in an interface with visual technology. I mean any form of apparatus designed either to be looked at or to enhance the natural vision , from oil painting to television the internet. Postmodernism has been defined as the crisis of modernism , that is to say wide ranging complex of ideas and modes of representation ranging from over arching beliefs in progress to theories of the rise of abstract printing . Now these means of representation is no long seems to be convincing until unless any alternative having emerged. The post modernisation is the crisis called by modernisation and modern culture confronting the failure of its own strategy of visualising . Also, we can say it is the visual crisis of the culture creates post modernity, not its textuality . While print culture is certainly not going to disappear, the fascination with the visual and its effect that was a key feature of modernism has endangered a postmodern culture that is at its most post modern when it is visual. The globalization of the visuals taken together demands new means of interpretation. At the same time , the transformation of the postmodern also requires rewriting of historical explanations of modernism in order to account for visual turn. We feel human experience is now more visual impressive. In many ways , people in industrialized post – industrialized societies now live in visual culture to an extent that seems to divide present from the past. Popular journalism constantly remarks on digital imagery in films, the advent of post photography and developments in medical imaging , not to mention the endless tide of comment devoted to the internet . It is evident post modernism is visual culture. Despite the vast range of alternatives , visual culture is a tactic to which to study the genealogy, definitions functions of post modern everyday life. The fragmented culture that we call postmodernism is best imagined and understood visually, just as the nineteenth century was classically represented in the news papers novel. Western culture has consistently privileged the spoken word as the highest form of intellectual practice and seen visual representation is secondly rated examples of ideas. Western philosophy now use a pictorial , rather than textual , model of the world , marking a significant challenges to the notion of the world as a written text that dominated so much intellectual discussion in the wake of such linguistic based movements as structuralism and post structuralism . While those working on with visual media might find such remarks rather patronizing , they are the measure of the extent to which even literary studies have been forced to conclude that the world as a text has been challenged by the world a picture. Such world pictures can not be purely visual, but by the same token , the visual disrupts and challenges any attempts to define culture in completely linguistic terms. Visual culture has a history that needs exploring and defining in the modern as well as post modern period. Many current uses of the term have suffered from vagueness that makes it little more than a buzzword. For some critics , visual culture is simply ‘the history of images’. Visual culture is used in a far more interactive senses , concentrating on the determining role of visual culture in the wider culture to which it belongs. Such a history of visual culture is debated , contested transformed as constantly challenging place of social interaction definition in terms of class, gender sexual identities. One critic in communication studies had made a point that this work entails ‘greater level of uncertainty risk ‘ than have often been used until now. As visual culture is still an idea in the making , rather than a well- defined existing field , this aims to help in its definition of visual culture rather than present it as a given. Visualising the things which are not in themselves visual is one of the most striking features of the new visual culture. A world picture doesn’t mean the picture of the world but the world perceived, conceived grasped as a picture. The world picture does not change from an earlier medieval one into a modern one, but rather the world becomes picture at all is what distinguishes the essence of the modern age. Visual culture doesn’t not depends on pictures but on this modern tendency to picture or visualise existence. One of the important objective of visual culture is to understand how these complex pictures come together. It direct our attention away from structured , formal viewing settings , like cinema to the centrality of visual feelings in everyday life. At present different notions of viewing are within between all the various visual sub disciplines. Of course, it does make a sense to differentiate . Our attitude varies whether we go to see movie , attend any art exhibition or see television. Most important thing to note here is our visual experience take place aside from these formally structured moments of looking. Just as cultural studies has sought to understand the ways in which people interpreting the meaning from the stock of mass culture , so does the visual culture prioritize everyday feel of the visual from the snapshot to TV and even the blockbuster art exhibition. Visual culture is a necessarily historical subject , based on the recognition that the visual image is not stable but change its relationship to exterior reality at particular moments of modernity. Perspective system , for example, depends upon the viewer examining the image from one point only, using just one eye. No one actually does this , but the image is internally coherent and thus credible. A photograph necessarily shows us something that was at a certain point actually before the camera’s lens. This image is dialectical because it setup a relationship between the viewer in the present and in the past moment of space or time that it represents . Film or photographic image no longer reflects reality because everybody knows it can be manipulated by computers. Real time prevailing over real space , virtually dominating turning concept of reality on its head . If we recollect the film produced by ‘smart’ bombs which were used in Gulf war , showed targets being destroyed , only for it later to emerge that they missed as often as any other bomb. These virtualities of the post modern image constantly seem to elude our grasp, creating a crisis of the visual that is more than a specialized problem for the traditional visual disciplines. The concept of world picture is no longer adequate to analyse the changed and changing situation . Visual culture seek to find ways to work within this new (virtual) reality to find the points of resistance in the crisis of information and visual fever ( overload) in everyday life. It can also be argued that in modern warfare tactics ( i.e. imitation, manipulation simulation ) are necessary to defeat the enemy win the war. So , we can now see the collapse of reality in everyday life from the mass visual media. One photograph alone no longer shows the truth. Similarly, some of the most followed television series bear no resemblance to reality at all. But the visual is not simply the medium of information and mass culture. Its offers sensual immediacy that can’t be rivalled by print media. The very element that makes visual imagery of all kinds distinct from texts. For better understanding of visual culture let us give this feeling a name – the sublime. The sublime is the pleasurable experience in representation of that which would be painful in reality, going forward to realization of limits of the human powers of nature. The sublime was first theorized in antiquity by Longinus, who described how is our soul is uplifted by the true sublimes; it takes a proud flight and is filled with joy and vaunting, as though it has itself produced what it had heard. The sublime was given renewed importance by enlightenment philosopher Immanuel Kant, who called it ‘ a satisfaction mixed with horror’. Kant contrasted the sublime with the beautiful, seeing the former as a more complex and profound emotion leading a person with taste for the sublime to detest all chains from the gilded variety worn at court to the irons weighing down the galley slave. The study of Visual Culture can include anything from Painting, Sculpture, Installation, Video art, Digital art, Photography, Film, Television, The Internet, Mobile screenic devices, Fashion, Medical scientific imaging, Social spaces of museums, galleries, exhibitions, and other private and public environments of the everyday. Visual Culture Studies involves an analysis of contemporary culture, media and society It important to understand how societies construct their visual perspectives through knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, laws, and customs, amongst other things. All images are produced within dynamics of social power and ideology. Ideology is the shared set of values and belief which individuals live out their complex relations to a range of social structures. Ideologies often appear to be natural or given aspects of everyday life. The future of visual culture in everyday life is deep rooted like development of internet high definition TV , make clear that visualizing is here to stay. On the other side , there are those who have dedicated themselves to ensuring that visual culture is eradicated as a field of study. Casting visual culture in this light places it in the role of the underdog, which can be course be a very privileged in academic field. So the example of the institutionalisation of cultural studies in the United states is perhaps the best place to look for lessons for the fledging interdisciplinary. Analyzing visual culture is a useful tool in understanding more about the world in which we live in. One may see things in different aspect or an image might take upon new meaning, once its meaning is analyzed and truly understood. Through the process of representation, psychoanalytic theory, and photographic truth, one may find a whole new world in the very one that they live. Visual Culture studies provide us with the ability to analyse the visualà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹

Marginality and Othering in Metalious’ Peyton Place Essay -- Peyton Pl

Marginality and Othering in Metalious’Peyton Place Metalious’ best known novel, Peyton Place, was a bestseller and a media phenomenon in the mid-1950s and 1960s, creating a stir because of its depictions of teenage sexuality, incest, and illegal abortion. Surprisingly, however, few close examinations of the novel’s content and style have been published by literary critics. This essay provides a discussion of a key concern in the novel: racial, ethnic, geographical, and sexual marginality. Written to challenge the inscription of white, middle class, nuclear family life as the standard by which difference should be measured, Peyton Place features several characters who inhabit the metaphorical margins of American society, including Samuel Peyton, an escaped slave and the founder of the town; Tomoas Makris, a mysteriously handsome Greek school principal with several resemblances to George Metalious; and Selena Cross, a dark-skinned, beautiful young woman describes as a â€Å"gypsy,† whose life ties in to the incest and abortion subplots within the novel. I will provide a working definition of marginality and â€Å"othering† to begin this essay, followed by a discussion of Metalious’ social status as a French Canadian in New Hampshire, a description of the characterizations of Samuel Peyton and Selena Cross, and a final word on realism, reception, and the novel’s legacy. Marginality and â€Å"othering† are terms that have a long history in literary and critical discourse of the 20th century. In cultural criticism of the last three decades, these terms have been used to describe differences in power among individuals, nations, and cultural forms. In Orientalism, for instance, Edward Said invokes this idea of marg... ...ched understanding of the novel’s legacy. The unique and provocative treatments of marginality and othering in Peyton Place illustrate conflicts and anxieties that remain unresolved in 21st century American culture. Works Cited Mussell, Kay. Fantasy and Reconciliation: Contemporary Formulas of Women’s Romance Fiction. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984. Said, Edward. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 1979. Sorrell, Richard S. â€Å"A Novelist and Her Ethnicity: Grace Metalious as a Franco-American,† Historical New Hampshire, Fall 1980: 284-327. Stearns, Jane and Michael Stearns. â€Å"Peyton Place.† Encyclopedia of Popular Culture. New York: Harper, 1992: 381-383. Toth, Emily. Inside Peyton Place: The Life of Grace Metalious. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2001. â€Å"Unpopular Best Seller.† Life, November 12, 1956: 104.

Importance of Deductive Reasoning Essay

It is very important to understand what is known prior to making a decision. All facts need to be reviewed, wrote out, and reviewed again. By doing this it will help you in making your decision accurately. For example, the DQ question we had this week, I reviewed all facts, wrote them down, and went to figure out the solution by reviewing the facts step-by-step. After I done this, then I went over everything again, and had the same solution, that there could be more than one advisor. I then submitted my answer. After doing this, I saw that another classmate had a different solution than mine so, I went back to review all the facts again, I could then see that my solution was accurate, and so was my classmates. This activity was very interesting, because there could several different solutions. If I had reviewed only part of the facts, or not used critical thinking, then I would have definitely made the wrong decision. The role of deductive reasoning in the decision- making process is a very important one. If you do not understand all the information that you are given, or if you just understand part of the information that you are given, than you will more than likely to make the wrong decision. This is why you should make sure that you understand all the information & facts that you are given, and think critically on all information so you can make an accurate decision. If you take the time to review, understand all of the facts that you are given this will help you in the decision making process. Deductive reasoning, and decision making is both part of the thinking process, when using them to together you this will aid you in making the right decision. Deductive reasoning is a method that helps you in gaining knowledge, which is a very important component in the decision making process. The process of deductive reasoning aids in understanding an argument by helping you to clearly understand all of the facts. When you deductive reason, you are thinking critically which will assist you in understanding the argument, and will also assist in making the right final decision. When reading the 5 arguments that were given, as I was reading I was critically thinking on each fact or bit of information given. For example, on buying a car if any information was left out, you could see yourself leaning to agree with Sally but, then seeing Mark’s point of view, his old car is fine for now, he hates to go on debt with the knowledge that Sally is pregnant. But, then Sally wants a safe, reliable, dependable vehicle for the children. If the fact that Sally was pregnant were not stated then that would change the whole decision- making process. This is why it is important to have, and understand all facts to help assist you in the decision-making process.

Black History Month Essay

Since 1976 Black History Month has been a remembrance of the events in the history of the African American movement. It is celebrated annually in the United States and Canada in the month of February, and the United Kingdom in the month of October. In the U.S., Black History Month is also referred to as African-American History Month. Black History Month actually started as Negro History Week in 1926 by Carter G. Woodson. The goal of Black History Week was to educate the American people about African-Americans’ cultural backgrounds and reputable achievements. Mr. Woodson believed that black history was a missing segment in the minds of most American Historians of his day. Black History Month has certainly played a key role in establishing African American history as a historically significant part of American History. You may be thinking to yourself, it is no longer a missing segment in the minds of most Americans, so therefore it is not relevant by today’s standards. Nothing could be further from the truth, than that uneducated line of thinking. African American history IS American History!! I cannot argue that over a number of years it has become a more commercialized month, giving the opportunity to advertise and sell, more companies have used it for monetary gain. However, so has Christmas and Thanksgiving and don’t get me started about Valentine’s Day†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..but there is still a reason we continue to celebrate these Holidays†¦.I believe it is because at they’re core they are still a part of American history and tradition. Now they may have started elsewhere, but we have made them a part of our culture, our American culture. Even with the creation of black Friday and the 24 hours a day 7 days a week for 30 straight days of Christmas music on a popular radio station†¦.we still know it is important to gather with family, tell our sons, daughters, grandchildren and great grandchildren of Christmases past, teach them about important people in our family history both living and deceased. It is important to educate our youth and give proper respect to the people (family members) that had they not done what they did, some of our families may not be here today. They sacrificed and paved the way for everyone to be together on these holidays. That sense of family, tradition and pride in being an American is what Black History month is all about. Americans whom just so happen to be of African descent. Americans who gave up many if not all of their holidays so that they’re children and grandchildren would not have to. Black History Month tells the continuing story of American history from the African American perspective. I’ll give you a couple of reasons why it is so relevant for today’s generation and future generations†¦. We all know the stories of many great African American contributors†¦ Fredrick Douglass, Martin Luther King Jr. George Washington Carver etc†¦ but, what about all of the non-African Americans who directly contributed to the abolishment of slavery, the education of an entire generation of displaced people. Those that gave their lives in the name of humanity. Who will speak for those American heroes?Why are they not mentioned in the same breath as Araminta Ross better known as Harriett Tubman? You ask why is Black Histoy Month relevant. It is relevant because we have barely scratched the surface towards recognizing, learning, teaching and understanding the true meaning of this American tradition. I thought about naming some of the non-African American contributors for those gathered here today, but then it occurred to me (I don’t need to) part of my purpose was to plant a seed, contribute to intelligent dialogue. I stated I would give you a couple of reasons.. The second one is this†¦..In our classrooms we still teach Greek mythology, we teach about the Great Roman empires, We teach American Indian history, we teach about Eli Whitney’s cotton gin, Thomas Edison’s light bulb †¦ and many many more historically important people and inventions. Yet these groups of people and inventions are no longer with us in the same capacity as they once were. And some of their ideas and inventions seem like they could have been created by a child†¦ by today’s standards. We teach about them because they are all†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦in one way or another connected to the development of the same race†¦The HUMAN Race!!! When you fill out an application for employment, school or the census, you’re asked to check a box White, African American, Hispanic American, American Indian, Asian American, Pacific Islander (maybe a few others) and then there is a box marked OTHER†¦.. Even with the diversity America has, who checks that box? Anyone mixed with two or more races? Anyone whose family history starts at Ellis Island? What if I told you OTHER is the fastest growing population in the world? What if in 25 years OTHER is the dominating population? I tell you this because I want you to think 50, 100, or 500 years from now when the OTHERS are the dominant race, how will they know of the contributions of African Americans? How will they know of the contributions of Irish Americans? Polish Americans? Jewish Americans? Filipino Americans? Asian Americans? American Indians? They will know because hopefully they will still be celebrating Irish American month in March, Filipino American Month in October, Hispanic Heritage month from Sep 15 to Oct 15, Jewish American Month in May and African American Month in February†¦That is how they will know†¦ Because no matter what box you check†¦ no matter what race creed or color you descend from, the key desc riptor is that of being an American.

Specific Heat Worked Example Problem

Specific Heat Worked Example Problem This worked example problem demonstrates how to calculate the specific heat of a substance when given the amount of energy used to change the substances temperature. Specific Heat Equation and Definition First, lets review what specific heat is and what equation you use to find it. Specific heat is defined as the amount of heat per unit mass needed to increase the temperature by one degree Celsius (or by 1 Kelvin). Usually, the lowercase letter c is used to denote specific heat. The equation is written: Q mcΔT (remember by thinking em-cat) where Q is the heat that is added, c is specific heat, m is mass and ΔT is the change in temperature. The usual units used for quantities in this equation are degrees Celsius for temperature (sometimes Kelvin), grams for mass, and specific heat reported in calorie/gram  °C, joule/gram  °C, or joule/gram K. You can also think of specific heat as heat capacity per mass basis of a material. When working a problem, youll either be given the specific heat values and asked to find one of the other values or else asked to find specific heat. There are published tables of molar specific heats of many materials. Note the specific heat equation does not apply for phase changes. This is because the temperature does not change. Specific Heat Problem It takes 487.5 J to heat 25 grams of copper from 25  °C to 75  °C. What is the specific heat in Joules/g ·Ã‚ °C?Solution:Use the formulaq mcΔTwhereq heat energym massc specific heatΔT change in temperaturePutting the numbers into the equation yields: 487.5 J (25 g)c(75  °C - 25  °C)487.5 J (25 g)c(50  °C)Solve for c:c 487.5 J/(25g)(50  °C)c 0.39 J/g ·Ã‚ °CAnswer:The specific heat of copper is 0.39 J/g ·Ã‚ °C.

Essay Sample on Terrorism Threats to Security

Essay Sample on Terrorism Threats to Security Example essay on Terrorism: The interrelated law and order issues of Organised Transnational Crime (OTC), the illicit drug trade and terrorism, are those which are most threatening to international security today. Law and order issues have also been called, low-intensity conflict, problems of global governability and grey area phenomenon and can be seen as threats to security arising from non-state actors and non-governmental processes. Increasingly since the end of the cold war, threats to national security are coming from these grey area phenomena and due to the process of globalisation, threats to national security can threaten international security. This essay will examine how OTC, terrorism and international drug trafficking are affecting all aspects of human security and it will be seen that it is increasingly difficult to clearly distinguish the difference between these issues. It will be shown that these particular GAP are the most threatening due to; the range of aspects of security they threaten, the convergence of and partnership between OTC and terrorism, the growing lethality of terrorism and the disparity of capabilities and effectiveness between these groups and the law enforcement and security bodies attempting to combat them. The new global economy has presented new opportunities for criminal organisations. These organisations have: increasingly engaged in cross-border activity, both in response to market activities and as a means of decreasing their vulnerability to law enforcement efforts. As a result, organisations and networks have increased in size and power and many have developed interests beyond their country of origin. Criminal organisations have developed to resemble transnational corporations which treat national borders as nothing more than minor inconveniences to their criminal enterprises. (McFarlane 1996, p.456) The most threatening of activities undertaken by OTC and increasingly by terrorists is the trafficking of illegal narcotics. The drug trade has the ability to penetrate all aspects of society and can threaten the social, political and economic security of nations, regions and the global community. Through corruption of state employees, transnational crime syndicates have the ability to undermine legitimate political processes. Dupont (1999, p.436) suggests that the growth in the coercive power of organised crime, if unchecked, has international security implications because large-scale criminal enterprise can subvert the norms and institutions that underpin the global order and the society of states. He offers Burma as the prime example of a threat to sovereignty from the anti-state imperatives of criminals trafficking in heroin and [synthetic drugs]. (p.454) Chalk (2001, p.188) offers an example closer to home however. He cites the findings of the 1996-97 Royal Commission into the New South Wales Police Service. The findings of the report suggest their has been a close relationship between police officers and drug traffickers for some time and Chalk goes on to explain that such corruption not only undermines the integrity and credibility of Australian social and political institutions, it also exposes the country to international influences over which it has little, if any, control. Thus OTC can be seen to pose a direct threat to sovereignty. In the post Cold War era, concerns have increasingly focused on security aspects other than the traditional concerns of political, military and sovereign integrity. The economic and social security of nations and its populations is becoming more important to security analysts and policy makers. The social impact of the drug trade may not necessarily be the most threatening to security but is probably the impact most felt by the majority of citizens within a society. These threats and impacts include; problems with addiction and the related problem of the spread of infectious diseases particularly HIV/AIDS and an increase in crime associated to the drug trade brought about by addicts trying to finance their habit and by traffickers trying to obtain larger shares of a market. McFarlane (1996, p.459) points to another interesting threat which may emerge from an increase in crime: Furthermore, with increasing crime a free press and civil rights tend to be ignored both by the criminals and by the hard-pressed law enforcement agencies. The potential for the drug trade to affect economic security is also large and is more and more becoming the focus of anti-crime initiatives. The importance of programmes and clinics to help those with an addiction problem or associated health or medical problem diverts funds from other areas of the economy. Finance of resources to combat OTC and the drug trade also diverts money from other sectors of the economy. Destabilisation of a financial system can also occur through the process of money laundering (Chalk: 2001 p181). The threat of terrorism also looms large on the international stage, especially since the events of Sept 11 2001 in New York and in Bali on Oct 12 2002. Due to these events, Militant Islamic terrorism is the focus of much of the international effort against terrorism and is seen as an immediate threat to international security. The difference between terrorists and OTC syndicates is largely determined by their motives and objectives. While OTC will usually focus on the acquisition of profits and power, militant Islamic terrors purpose is commonly identified as the eradication of infidel. In this, they are becoming much more proficient. One of the reasons for this proficiency is the availability and affordability of weapons and supporting technology left over from old Cold War conflicts (Chalk 1999, p.161; Marenko n.d). Campbell (1997, p. 28, cited in Chalk 1999, p.163) suggests that terrorism Ð ¡has demonstrated an increasing trend towards growing lethality and extreme violence sugg esting a potential escalation spiral that could culminate in the indiscriminate use of weapons of mass destruction. As separate law and order issues, Organised Transnational Crime and non-profit motivated terrorism constitute immediate threats to international security. There is however, an escalating trend towards cooperation and indeed a convergence between these two groups, so much so that is becoming more difficult to distinguish between them. Since the end of the Cold War, state sponsored and subsidised terrorism has declined and terrorist organisations have turned to criminal like activities to fund operations (Jamieson 2001, p.379). The most common and threatening of these activities is drug trafficking which offers dividends that can often lead revolutionary groups to neglect their ideals. Hezbollah operates a narcotics export operation out of the Bekaa Valley in the Middle East, has ties with the insurgent Kurdistan Workers Party and with Russian organised crime and is a good example of a group turning to crime to fund their terror operations. Abu Sayyaf in the Philippines and the Revolut ionary Armed Forces of Columbia (FARC) are better examples of ideologically driven groups that that have transformed into criminal enterprises (Cillufo 2000). On the other hand, organised crime groups are increasing their use of terror tactics. In 1993 for example, the Sicilian Mafia carried out a series of car bomb attacks near historic sites on the Italian mainland with the aim of intimidating public opinion and Parliament into abrogating recently passed anti-mafia legislation (Jamieson 2001, p.379). The cooperation between and convergence of OTC and terrorism naturally poses a larger threat to international security than if they operated alone. It is implied by the Report on the 11th Meeting of the CSCSP Working Group on Transnational Crime (2002) that John McFarlane suggests that the attacks on Sept 11 2001 in New York could not have been perpetrated without criminal means and connections being used to acquire funds and identity papers. The direct threats of OTC, the Drug trade and terrorism have been recognised but a related threat must also be addressed. This threat comes from a disparity between the capabilities of OTC and terrorist groups and the ability of governments to stop their activities. This is exacerbated by the effects of globalisation. Naim (2003) best describes this situation Never fettered by the niceties of sovereignty, they [OTCs and terrorists] are now increasingly free of geographic constraints. Moreover, globalisation has not only expanded illegal markets and boosted the size and the resources of criminal networks, it has also imposed more burdens on governments: Tighter public budgets, decentralisation, privatisation, deregulation and a more open environment for national trade and investment all make the task of fighting global criminal more difficult. Governments are made up of cumbersome bureaucracies that generally cooperate with difficulty, but drug traffickers, arms dealers, alien smugglers, counterfeiters and money launderers have refined networking to a high science, entering into complex and improbable strategic alliances that span cultures and continents. It is clear from this that governments need to redefine notions of sovereignty in order to foster more international cooperation within the framework of strengthened international institutions. Organised Transnational Crime activities, particularly narcotics trafficking, are a serious threat to international security. They can destabilise a nation socially, politically and economically, which in turn can lead to destabilisation in the international community. The increasing occurrence and lethality of militant Islamic terrorism also creates concern for international stability. The most significant threat however, comes from a convergence of OTC and terrorism and the international communitys inability to react effectively to this increasing phenomena. The new global economy has presented new opportunities for criminal organisations. These organisations have: increasingly engaged in cross-border activity, both in response to market activities and as a means of decreasing their vulnerability to law enforcement efforts. As a result, organisations and networks have increased in size and power and many have developed interests beyond their country of origin. Criminal organisations have developed to resemble transnational corporations which treat national borders as nothing more than minor inconveniences to their criminal enterprises. (McFarlane 1996, p.456) The most threatening of activities undertaken by OTC and increasingly by terrorists is the trafficking of illegal narcotics. The drug trade has the ability to penetrate all aspects of society and can threaten the social, political and economic security of nations, regions and the global community. Through corruption of state employees, transnational crime syndicates have the ability to undermine legitimate political processes. Dupont (1999, p.436) suggests that the growth in the coercive power of organised crime, if unchecked, has international security implications because large-scale criminal enterprise can subvert the norms and institutions that underpin the global order and the society of states. He offers Burma as the prime example of a threat to sovereignty from the anti-state imperatives of criminals trafficking in heroin and [synthetic drugs]. (p.454) Chalk (2001, p.188) offers an example closer to home however. He cites the findings of the 1996-97 Royal Commission into the New South Wales Police Service. The findings of the report suggest their has been a close relationship between police officers and drug traffickers for some time and Chalk goes on to explain that such corruption not only undermines the integrity and credibility of Australian social and political institutions, it also exposes the country to international influences over which it has little, if any, control. Thus OTC can be seen to pose a direct threat to sovereignty. In the post Cold War era, concerns have increasingly focused on security aspects other than the traditional concerns of political, military and sovereign integrity. The economic and social security of nations and its populations is becoming more important to security analysts and policy makers. The social impact of the drug trade may not necessarily be the most threatening to security but is probably the impact most felt by the majority of citizens within a society. These threats and impacts include; problems with addiction and the related problem of the spread of infectious diseases particularly HIV/AIDS and an increase in crime associated to the drug trade brought about by addicts trying to finance their habit and by traffickers trying to obtain larger shares of a market. McFarlane (1996, p.459) points to another interesting threat which may emerge from an increase in crime: Furthermore, with increasing crime a free press and civil rights tend to be ignored both by the criminals and by the hard-pressed law enforcement agencies. The potential for the drug trade to affect economic security is also large and is more and more becoming the focus of anti-crime initiatives. The importance of programmes and clinics to help those with an addiction problem or associated health or medical problem diverts funds from other areas of the economy. Finance of resources to combat OTC and the drug trade also diverts money from other sectors of the economy. Destabilisation of a financial system can also occur through the process of money laundering (Chalk: 2001 p181). The threat of terrorism also looms large on the international stage, especially since the events of Sept 11 2001 in New York and in Bali on Oct 12 2002. Due to these events, Militant Islamic terrorism is the focus of much of the international effort against terrorism and is seen as an immediate threat to international security. The difference between terrorists and OTC syndicates is largely determined by their motives and objectives. While OTC will usually focus on the acquisition of profits and power, militant Islamic terrors purpose is commonly identified as the eradication of infidel. In this, they are becoming much more proficient. One of the reasons for this proficiency is the availability and affordability of weapons and supporting technology left over from old Cold War conflicts (Chalk 1999, p.161; Marenko n.d). Campbell (1997, p. 28, cited in Chalk 1999, p.163) suggests that terrorism Ð ¡has demonstrated an increasing trend towards growing lethality and extreme violenceЕ .suggesting a potential escalation spiral that could culminate in the indiscriminate use of weapons of mass destructionÐ ¢ As separate law and order issues, Organised Transnational Crime and non-profit motivated terrorism constitute immediate threats to international security. There is however, an escalating trend towards cooperation and indeed a convergence between these two groups, so much so that is becoming more difficult to distinguish between them. Since the end of the Cold War, state sponsored and subsidised terrorism has declined and terrorist organisations have turned to criminal like activities to fund operations (Jamieson 2001, p.379). The most common and threatening of these activities is drug trafficking which offers dividends that can often lead revolutionary groups to neglect their ideals. Hezbollah operates a narcotics export operation out of the Bekaa Valley in the Middle East, has ties with the insurgent Kurdistan Workers Party and with Russian organised crime and is a good example of a group turning to crime to fund their terror operations. Abu Sayyaf in the Philippines and the Revolut ionary Armed Forces of Columbia (FARC) are better examples of ideologically driven groups that that have transformed into criminal enterprises (Cillufo 2000). On the other hand, organised crime groups are increasing their use of terror tactics. In 1993 for example, the Sicilian Mafia carried out a series of car bomb attacks near historic sites on the Italian mainland with the aim of intimidating public opinion and Parliament into abrogating recently passed anti-mafia legislation (Jamieson 2001, p.379). The cooperation between and convergence of OTC and terrorism naturally poses a larger threat to international security than if they operated alone. It is implied by the Report on the 11th Meeting of the CSCSP Working Group on Transnational Crime (2002) that John McFarlane suggests that the attacks on Sept 11 2001 in New York could not have been perpetrated without criminal means and connections being used to acquire funds and identity papers. The direct threats of OTC, the Drug trade and terrorism have been recognised but a related threat must also be addressed. This threat comes from a disparity between the capabilities of OTC and terrorist groups and the ability of governments to stop their activities. This is exacerbated by the effects of globalisation. Naim (2003) best describes this situation Never fettered by the niceties of sovereignty, they [OTCs and terrorists] are now increasingly free of geographic constraints. Moreover, globalisation has not only expanded illegal markets and boosted the size and the resources of criminal networks, it has also imposed more burdens on governments: Tighter public budgets, decentralisation, privatisation, deregulation and a more open environment for national trade and investment all make the task of fighting global criminal more difficult. Governments are made up of cumbersome bureaucracies that generally cooperate with difficulty, but drug traffickers, arms dealers, alien smugglers, counterfeiters and money launderers have refined networking to a high science, entering into complex and improbable strategic alliances that span cultures and continents. It is clear from this that governments need to redefine notions of sovereignty in order to foster more international cooperation within the framework of strengthened international institutions. Organised Transnational Crime activities, particularly narcotics trafficking, are a serious threat to international security. They can destabilise a nation socially, politically and economically, which in turn can lead to destabilisation in the international community. The increasing occurrence and lethality of militant Islamic terrorism also creates concern for international stability. The most significant threat however, comes from a convergence of OTC and terrorism and the international communityÐ ¢s inability to react effectively to this increasing phenomena.

Beyoud The Sex

Young Beautiful, it tells us a story about how a 17-year-old girl named Isabella became a prostitute, and how did she get out of it. It happened in Sociables 17, because 17 is a special age for us. When we are 1 7, we are passionate and full of novelty. We want to get out of control from our parents; we want to become mature rapidly; we expect to leave the teenage world and become an adult; we eat the forbidden fruit on a sly; we attempt to explore who we are, and what the world is.But eventually, all of us will find the answer, though some Of us may take a detour. In the movie, Isabella works as a prostitute and lives in a secret life. Once one of her client John died when he was having sex with her, and her job was exposed to the police and her parents. When she went to the psychologist, the psychologist doubts why she wanted to do the job. Indeed, every audience is curious about it. Why? Her family is not poor, and her mother gave her enough money to support her school life. She doesnt buy luxuries, and she just saved all the money she earned in the closet.Then why, why would she still do this filthy job? But Isabella replied, It was simpler, cleared. Apparently, it is simple. The old rich men with lots of money want to have sex with young beautiful girl. The purpose is undisguised and straight. It doesnt need any word, promise or flatter. And she charged the money to assess the worth of herself. It seems like she is exploring something. She is discovering her sexuality, and the relationship between male and female. She is eager to know everything about the complex world. However, why did she choose such a way? Ink it is related to her family and her childhood. Maybe it is a compensation for her natural father. So she is more curious about the sexuality and love. Her parents took apart when she was young. Though her stepfather is very kind, she still feels that she is the extra person in her family. And there is a large gap between she and her mother. She wants to have a rebellion. She needs a shortcut to be quickly independent and mature. She wants to jump out of the moral encumbrance. Maybe it results of her unsatisfactory fist time. And in the end, the talk withJohns wife seems to awake her. When the dark over, the dawn comes, all of these things seem like happening in the dream. The director left an opening ending for us, and he didnt show exactly what happened in the end. More importantly, it leads us to think above the girl, above the sexuality. Female sexual desire, self-recognizing, self identity, middle class interests, youth and growth, young and beautiful All Of them are leading us to a deeper exploration and meditation. And thats what beyond the sexuality; thats what movie brings to us.

Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Psychology - Essay Example They encounter serious kinds of attacks frequently while some overcome them with consummate ease, depending upon the nature of stress one has to go through over a period of time. Workplace stress also entails within it issues of anxiousness at work whereby it is regarded as another kind of mental anomaly, which tears down the mind and the body in a number of different ways. Workplace stress leads to different kinds of depressions within oneself on top. The employees start feeling alienated with the tasks and feel their bodies having all forms of aches every now and so often. These people also comprehend the pressures from their job settings which in reality are of a normal nature and have little bearing on them in the real sense. The pressure-exertion effect makes them feel more stressed at the end of the day, which then again is a very perilous thing. Workplace stress can be reduced when employees know that the task they are putting their best energies at, are worth the shot and in the end, the same will help them to grow exponentially. In fact they must be apprised of their hard work and the rewards that they get. This is indeed a nice gesture which means a lot on the part of the hard working and committed employees and workers (Harmon 2003). The hard working employees should balance their work commitments with their physical and mental needs as 100 percent commitment can only be made possible when there is zest and enthusiasm from within and not when a person is made to do one thing or the other by force or against his wishes. The reason why one should believe this approach will work is because in the initial sense, it will build a strong rapport between the firm and its employees and also it will convey a strong message that the organization does not compromise on the needs of the employees who are working for it day in day out just for having that extra bit of work completed by them (Bergman 2003). It also means that the organization is thorough and profes sional in its approach and is not willing to surrender in a rat race when the talk goes out loud of competing within the relevant industry or even with companies just for the sake of nothing but competition. The intensity within organizations is pretty much understandable but the madness should not be substituted on the part of the employees and getting work done out of them so that the figures could be reached and new records could be broken within the shortest possible time is nothing but insanity to say the least. Other useful workplace stress removing remedies are accounted for in the form of exercising regularly, having an intake of healthy diet, taking proper sleep, developing trustworthy social support regimes and more than anything else enjoying quality family time (Linton 2000). The physical and psychological implications thus have direct and serious effects on the way the employees look after their work tasks and thus the bottom line remains all jammed up for a number of r easons – most of which are related with stress in one way or the other. It is true to state that workplace stress affects employees at all levels which could include the physical, emotional, cognitive and behavioral stages. The physical indications entail the speech difficulties and complexities, headaches, ulcers, infertility issues, fatigue and sudden weight loss and

Career Exploration Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Career Exploration - Assignment Example Online solutions provide a wide range of tools that can be helpful in the career assessment. These tools have been uniquely tailored to not only disclose individual’s interest but also reveal how such interests translate to related carrier options. In this work I will detail the outcome of the following assessment test: Career Directions Inventory, Campbell Interest and Skill Survey, and the Jackson Vocational Interest Survey. The initial assessment focuses on personal trends throughput the different carriers. The results highlighted here depict my interest level with regard to particular activities when compared to other people. The assessment questions are customized to gauge an individual’s work-style and occupational interests. These Occupational interests are divided into 12 different interest types. The Basic Interest scores are displayed individually as percentiles. For instance, a score of 80% implies you obtained a higher score in this Basic Interest compared to 80% obtained by other people tested. Based on this assessment, the measures of my occupational interests came out as follows: I scored highest in clerical, a factor that simply implies that I enjoy Answering phones and greet clients warmly. Assist in filing duties, Perform basic bookkeeping duties, Compile financial records, organize office activities and other related duties. I got high score in Persuasive, signifying that I take pleasure in work that entails advising, influencing, counseling, motivating, guiding, and directing the tasks of others. Based on Assertive scale it is obvious that I prefer a work situation that allows one to assert his/her authority on others. This may include monitoring and directing their tasks. The second factor considered in the tests is the personality concept. This assessment follows John Hollands RIASEC theory that views the world of work based on six different models (Baker, 2014). Here, the test is stretched to include a seventh model that

Discussion for online Healthcare HRM Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion for online Healthcare HRM - Essay Example Human resource in the healthcare setting interacts with a group of people who are highly sensitive to the environment around them due to their respective health complications. On the same note, all the stakeholders in the health care setting work towards promoting patient welfare, and so should the attitude and perception exhibited in this setting. In this respect, the realized performance outcomes rely on the basis of interaction between healthcare practitioners and the patients, thus making attitude and perception direct influential variables on performance. The integration of attitude and perception into an evaluation process should account for the links and relations between the human resource and all the other parties present in the healthcare setting, especially the patients. While this would be a positive move, the legal aspect of the matter could be highly bureaucratic, thereby slowing down the integration process and challenging the basis of operation of the evaluation system. On the same note, the likelihood of discrimination issues against human resource arising could be relatively high (Flynn, Mathis, Jackson & Langan, 2007). Moreover, the need to set measurement variables for the purpose of undertaking the evaluation becomes

Age Effect on M-Commerce Retail Customers Dissertation

Age Effect on M-Commerce Retail Customers - Dissertation Example The consumers are divided into two age groups: 18-35 and 36 and older. Using contingency theory and simple regression analysis the results are analysed for statistical significance of age. The results and implications for further research are discussed. Table of Contents Abstract 4 List of Abbreviations 6 Definition of Terms 7 Chapter One: Introduction to the Study 8 1.1.Background 8 1.2.Statement of the Problem 10 1.3.Purpose of the Study 13 1.4.Aim and Objectives 14 1.4.1 Aim 14 1.4.2. Objectives 14 1.5.Research Questions 15 1.6.Hypotheses 15 1.7.Research Methodology 16 1.7.1.Research Instruments 17 1.7.2.Limitations and Delimitations 18 1.7.3.Assumptions 19 1.9.Organization of the Study 21 1.10.Chapter Summary 22 Chapter Two: Literature Review 23 2.1. Introduction 23 2.2. M-Commerce: Mobile Networks, Services and Applications 23 2.3. M-Commerce and the Retail Sector 29 2.3.1. The Retail Sector 29 2.3.2. The Retail Sector and M-Commerce 31 2.4. M-Commerce and Consumer Trends Worldw ide 37 2.5. Consumer Adaptability, Acceptance and Attitudes Toward M-Commerce 42 2.5.1. Adaptability 42 2.5.2. Acceptance 50 2.5.3. Attitudes 59 2.6. Themes in the Literature 62 2.6.1. History, Development and Trends in M-Commerce Use Globally 62 2.6.1.1. Retail 62 2.6.1.2. Consumer Trends 65 2.6.2. M-Commerce and Consumer Adaptability, Acceptance and Attitudes: Previous Studies 66 2.6.2.1. Adaptability 66 2.6.2.2. Acceptance 69 2.6.2.3. Attitudes 71 2.7. Summary 71 Chapter Three: Research Methodology 73 3.1. Introduction 73 3.2. Contingency Theory 73 3.3. Research Philosophy 75 3.4. Research Methods 77 3.4.1. Data Collection 79 3.4.2. Data Analysis 85 3.5. Trustworthiness 88 3.6. Ethical Considerations 90 3.7. Summary 92 Chapter Four: Results and Analysis 93 4.1. Introduction 93 4.2. Results 93 4.3. Analysis 104 1.11.Aim and Objectives 133 1.4.1 Aim 133 1.4.2. Objectives 133 1.12.Research Questions 134 1.13.Hypotheses 135 1.14.Statement of the Problem 138 1.15.Purpose of the Study 141 1.16.Aim and Objectives 141 1.4.1 Aim 141 1.4.2. Objectives 142 List of Abbreviations B2C: Business to Consumer IT: Information Technologies LAN: Local Area Network PB: Perceived Benefits PU: Perceived Usefulness PEOU: Perceived Ease of Use TAM: Technology Acceptance Model TPB: Theory of Planned Behavior TRA: Theory of Reasoned Action WAP: Wireless Application Protocol Definition of Terms E-commerce: Selling and purchasing goods and services via electronic platforms. Interoperability: Diverse systems working together for one common goal. M-Commerce: Wireless of mobile transaction involving transfers of funds. M-Payments: Method for making payments via mobile or wireless devices. Chapter One: Introduction to the Study 1.1. Background A number of different mobile wireless devices and services are now available and range from mobile telephone networks to wireless local area networks (LANs). These kinds of devices and services are encapsulated by mobile commerce, more broadly known as m-commerce (Liu & Chen, 2009). M-commerce is a branch of e-commerce and as such is defined as any monetary or economic transaction performed by use of a mobile wireless device or by â€Å"wireless technology†, by at least one of the parties to the transaction (Mohpatra, 2013, p. 81). Bidgoli (2011) simplifies the definition of m-commerce by defining it as a â€Å"new market are created by web-enabled mobile phone services†

Teaching Of Primary Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Teaching Of Primary Science - Essay Example It also provides examples of schools that have experimented context-based teaching in science in classrooms, and a curricular example that teachers can modify to increase student understanding of any curricular area. Finally, it provides online resources and a podcast that provide teachers with additional ideas for making their lessons more interesting and engaging, empowering, and enlightening classrooms. There have been many studies that indicate context-based approach is essential in order for student learning to take place. Research reveals that teaching Strategies are necessary in schools for teachers to effectively increase student achievement. The focus of this research study is to examine effects of context-based approaches in teaching science in Classroom. The review of literature will look at several factors related to teaching strategies. Those factors include the Traditional view of teaching science, problematic questions that arise in this research, importance of context-based teaching, in classroom. ... Context-based approaches to teaching science in primary school have become widely used over the past two decades. They aspire to foster more positive attitudes to science while, at the same time, provide a sound basis of scientific understanding for further study. One of the most distinct trends of the last two decades in science curriculum development across a number of countries has been to use contexts and applications of science as a means of developing scientific understanding. Teaching in this way is often described as adopting a context-based approach. The trend toward the use of context-based approaches is apparent across the whole age spectrum from primary through to university level, but is most noticeable in materials developed for use in the secondary age range. Traditional Teaching Style of Science Over the last two decades reports have traced students' increasingly negative attitudes to Science in Australia over the primary years of schooling, and the associated decrease in student participation in post-compulsory science (Goodrum, Hackling, & Rennie, 2001; Tytler, 2007). This decline in interest in Science in the early years of primary education is of particular concern, since it is in these years that attitudes to the pursuit of science subjects and careers are formed (Speering & Rennie, 1996). A number of studies have explicitly linked this decline in student interest with the nature of the traditional science curriculum and its inability to make science meaningful and interesting to students (Fensham, 2004; Lyons, 2006). By making Science more relevant to a broader audience we can prepare prospective science degree students and professionals, as well as

Strategic Management Resit Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Strategic Management Resit Report - Essay Example Since every organization wants to acquire competitive advantage therefore it was difficult to make strategies based on the external business environment due to homogeneity. However, resources such as reputation, credibility of employees, training and development methods etc. may vary from organization to organization and they are significantly hard to replicate (Gupta et. al., 2007). In the contemporary business environment resources based view of strategic management holds a remarkable position. Ever since it has emerged different critics have argued upon its importance in strategic management while some have defended its importance in attaining business superiority. Whatever the case may be one thing is obvious that resource based view in strategic management has actually strengthened the organization’s core values and integrity while improving the overall ethical conduct (Priem and Butler, 2001). This paper aims to investigate Resource Based View and its relevance with Stra tegic Management. Moreover its role in achieving competitive advantage particularly in an educational institution would be discussed with a case example. Discussion The theory of growth of a firm has actually laid down the foundation of resource based view in strategic management. An individual firm has a number of valuable internal resources which are mostly unique in terms of quality and quantity. For instance, the financial resources including all the monetary reserves, credits, accounts receivables etc., plant resources such as land and equipment, human resource which represents the nature of employees’ intellect, skills and credibility. Moreover the knowledge and expertise of an organization in industry and the overall management structure including planning and reporting are the important internal resources (Harrison, 2012). All of these are then combined with the strategic policies of an organization. The distinguishing nature of resources constitutes an organizationâ €™s core values which play a vital role in its overall success or failure. The accurate utilization of all these resources actually represents profitable long term strategic management which is a significant element of competitive advantage. The relevance of resource based view to strategic management can be substantiated on the basis of the fact that organizational strategies largely focus on increasing revenues while occupying unparalleled market share in the industry. On the other hand the sole purpose of resource based view is to achieve competitive advantage which makes it internally linked with the strategic management (Akio, 2005). Competitive Advantage Resource based view in strategic management plays a significant role in acquiring competitive advantage. For instance, if the Corporate Planning Department of a university requires maintaining distinctiveness in its management policies and customer services then it would need to implement resource based view in the followi ng pattern (Knott, 2009): Initially the organization would have to analyze its fundamental possessions including financial resources, plant resources and human resources. These are then divided on the basis of distinctiveness in the industry and overall participation in carrying out different business

Teaching Of Primary Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Teaching Of Primary Science - Essay Example It also provides examples of schools that have experimented context-based teaching in science in classrooms, and a curricular example that teachers can modify to increase student understanding of any curricular area. Finally, it provides online resources and a podcast that provide teachers with additional ideas for making their lessons more interesting and engaging, empowering, and enlightening classrooms. There have been many studies that indicate context-based approach is essential in order for student learning to take place. Research reveals that teaching Strategies are necessary in schools for teachers to effectively increase student achievement. The focus of this research study is to examine effects of context-based approaches in teaching science in Classroom. The review of literature will look at several factors related to teaching strategies. Those factors include the Traditional view of teaching science, problematic questions that arise in this research, importance of context-based teaching, in classroom. ... Context-based approaches to teaching science in primary school have become widely used over the past two decades. They aspire to foster more positive attitudes to science while, at the same time, provide a sound basis of scientific understanding for further study. One of the most distinct trends of the last two decades in science curriculum development across a number of countries has been to use contexts and applications of science as a means of developing scientific understanding. Teaching in this way is often described as adopting a context-based approach. The trend toward the use of context-based approaches is apparent across the whole age spectrum from primary through to university level, but is most noticeable in materials developed for use in the secondary age range. Traditional Teaching Style of Science Over the last two decades reports have traced students' increasingly negative attitudes to Science in Australia over the primary years of schooling, and the associated decrease in student participation in post-compulsory science (Goodrum, Hackling, & Rennie, 2001; Tytler, 2007). This decline in interest in Science in the early years of primary education is of particular concern, since it is in these years that attitudes to the pursuit of science subjects and careers are formed (Speering & Rennie, 1996). A number of studies have explicitly linked this decline in student interest with the nature of the traditional science curriculum and its inability to make science meaningful and interesting to students (Fensham, 2004; Lyons, 2006). By making Science more relevant to a broader audience we can prepare prospective science degree students and professionals, as well as

The Violence Runner Essay Example for Free

The Violence Runner Essay Throughout the history, there have been leaders of good and evil, moral and immoral, peaceful and violent alike. Sometimes, when the evil takes power and misuses it, the staggering impact they entail in the society can be appalling and outrageous. In Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner, Assef is exemplary of an evil leader who misuses his power and stands in the frontlines of crippling Afghanistan and its people into a pitch-black mist of chaos. First of all, Hosseini places Assef under the perfect setting in which the author bestows Assef the opportunity to develop his power as an antagonist in the novel. Throughout the history, there have been leaders of good and evil, moral and immoral, peaceful and violent alike. Sometimes, when the evil takes power and misuses it, the staggering impact they entail in the society can be appalling and outrageous. In Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner, Assef is exemplary of an evil leader who misuses his power and stands in the frontlines of crippling Afghanistan and its people into a pitch-black mist of chaos. First of all, Hosseini places Assef under the perfect setting in which the author bestows Assef the opportunity to develop his power as an antagonist in the novel. In the nineteenth century, Hazaras fails to rise against the Pashtuns in Afghanistan, and subsequently, discrimination against the Hazaras becomes prevalent in the society. In this type of environment, Assef naturally gains superiority over the Hazaras as a Pashtun and forms discriminative views and ethnic hatred towards them. It is even understandable for Assef to claim Adolf Hitler, the infamous dictator who relentlessly exterminated millions of Jews and other ethnic groups, to be a great leader, â€Å"a man with vision. † (Hosseini, page 40) This is because to Assef, Hitler is his role model; Assef believes that Hazaras should be exterminated from the face of the earth, as he is determined to ask Daoud Khan, the newly president, â€Å"to rid Afghanistan of all the dirty, Kaseef Hazaras. † (Hosseini, page 40) This way, Assef naturally develops his relentlessness and sadism that he fully makes usage out of. His violent mindset against the Hazaras leads him to later join the Taliban, in which he gains the position to freely kill Hazaras without punishment, and relentlessly ties up Afghanistan in a bundle of Taliban laws. As we can see, Assef uses his superiority over the Hazaras that he gains from the society that he lives in, and manipulates it fully to dominate over the ethnic group. To control and frighten them he would often times use violence as his tool. Assef rules the streets of Wazir Akbar Khan section of Kabul with his notorious savagery and relentless violence. In the streets of the Wazir Akbar Khan, Assef’s â€Å"word is law†, and if the law is broken, then his stainless-steel brass knuckles are used accordingly as a punishment. (Hosseini, pag3 38) Here, Hosseini uses stainless-steel brass knuckles as a significant motif throughout the novel, and also a symbol of violence and dominating power. Whenever we see Assef performing violence on somebody, we can observe emergence of his brass knuckles. When Hassan defends Amir against Assef with his slingshot, Assef tells Hassan and Amir, â€Å"this doesn’t end today, believe me. † (Hosseini, page 42) This suggests that Assef is a relentless, merciless and vengeful figure, foreshadowing his later revenge against Hassan and Amir. The brass knuckles appear again towards the end of the novel, when Assef beats Amir miserably with his brass knuckles â€Å"flashing in the afternoon light,† and thus fulfilling his warning and revenge that he had in his childhood. (Hosseini, page 288) These brass knuckles clearly represent physical domination on those who do not have such power; these multiple scenes of the recurring emergence of the brass knuckles suggest that violence is his power, his way to rule. Despite Assef’s unbearable deeds of violence, he holds one power that not everyone has: the power to change one’s life completely. Rape is a significant motif that is used throughout the novel by Assef. The reason why this motif is so crucial is that through rape, Assef destroys one’s integrity, emotional stability and dignity, and fully dominates them both physically and emotionally. Two significant cases would be Hassan’s rape and the other, Sohrab’s rape. By raping Hassan, Assef destroys two individuals: Hassan, who faces emotional trauma and breakdown afterwards, and Amir. Assef raping Hassan is the source of Amir feeling guilty and in remorse of not standing up for Hassan, and eventually leads him to make Hassan leave his family and ends up feeling guilty in his entire life, until he finds Sohrab alive and to redeem himself, plunges himself in the Taliban world to save Sohrab. Clearly, Assef held the key to change both lives. On the other hand, Sohrab’s life is changed dramatically through rape. As a result, Sohrab loses speech ability and feels extremely guilty, as he claims himself to be â€Å"so dirty and full of sin. † (Hosseini, page 319). These two â€Å"lambs†, Hassan and Sohrab, are sacrificed as a result of Assef’s misuse of power. Assef is clearly a violent man who holds the power in The Kite Runner. Assef makes full use of the power that he naturally gains in the society that he lives in, fully develops it and holds the key to change the society dramatically. He is the violence runner, to whom violence is always the solution to problems. Bibliography: Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: Riverhead, 2003. Print.

Travel Time Reliability Analysis

Travel Time Reliability Analysis CHAPTER TWO Literature Review 2.1 Introduction Lyman (2007) states that travel time reliability is vital measure of congestion and can serve as benchmark for prioritizing improvements into a city transportation system. This research start with a literature review of travel time reliability and its worth as a congestion measure. Travel time reliability can be denoted as the probability of successfully completing a trip within specified time interval (Iida, 1999). Therefore, the increase of travel time will lead to the unreliability and variability of travel time (Recker et al., 2005). The better understanding of travel time reliability and variability might assist transport planner to select proper transport policy in conjunction with reduction congestion problems as well as lessening the impact of different type of incidents (Recker et al., 2005). It can be said that, the more reliable the transportation system, the more stable is the performance. In addition, lower travel time fluctuation also contributes to less fuel consumption as well as less emissions due to a reduced amount of acceleration and deceleration by vehicles (Vlieger et al., 2000). Moreover, from a transport users point of view, more reliable travel times mean more predictable journey times and improved activity schedules. In accordance with just in time services, reliable travel time will significantly increase the freight industrys performances to deliver goods (Recker et al., 2005). As travel time reliability considers the distribution of travel time probability and its variation at road network, the higher travel time variance the lower travel time reliability (Nicholson et al., 2003). It can be also said that under ideal conditions travel time reliability would have a variance equal to zero. Indeed, the increase of its variance will therefore significantly reduce its reliability. However, the relationship between travel time variance and its reliability is not linear, so that, it cannot be generally accepted that a double of travel time variance will lead to a half of its reliability. To conclude, the greater travel time fluctuations will have significant impacts on transport network reliability. According to different purposes of travel time reliability study, there are several travel time reliability surveys. By comparing different aspect of the travel time study and by considering the complexity of data collection as well the data analysis, Lomax et al. (2003) has reviewed the suitable assessment of travel time reliability. Based on the scope and the limitation of each method this work suggested the different study in terms of measurement travel time variability and travel time reliability. The analysis of the archive traffic data is not proper in measuring the travel time reliability due to the lack of data constant and the lack of other attribute related with the traffic condition. However, the data is easy to obtain. In addition, the micro simulation techniques have been used extensively, however according to Lin et al (2005) there are some deficiencies in travel time micro simulation modeling in terms of the high need for data calibration. In order to gain real life traffic conditions, some travel time reliability research used the probe vehicle methods. Since this method requires ext ensive labour and only covers some of the study area or some of the road segments, it cannot be applied in terms of assessing the travel time reliability on large road networks. Indeed, Lomax et al also recommended some reliability measurements by examining the reliability and variability percentage (e.g., 5%, 10% and 15%). Those approaches take into account the effect of irregular conditions in the forms of the amount of extra time that must be allowed for travelers. The first measurement is the percent variation which expresses the relationship between the amount of variation and the average travel time in a percentage measure. The second is the misery index that calculates the amount of time exceeded the average slowest time by subtracting the average travel time with the upper 10%, 15% and 20% of average travel rates and the last is travel time buffer which add the extra travel time of 95% trips in order to arrive on time. In addition, since reliable travel time is the key indicator of users route choice there are many recent research works which investigated the travelers behaviour under unreliable travel time. According to travelers behavior in route choice survey, the greater the variance of travel time of selected links the less attractive it is (Tannabe et al., 2007). Additionally, Bogers and Lint (2007) investigated traveler behavior on three different road types in The Netherlands under uncertainty conditions, as well as the impact of providing traveller information on route choice. They conclude that providing traveler information has significant impact on effecting travelers decision, in addition, based on travelers experience they will choose the route with minimal travel time variance. It means that the routes that have high travel time reliability are not attractive for users. Indeed, according to Lomax et als review that the best alternative to measure the travel time variability and route choicer behaviour under uncertainty condition is by using probe vehicles. Though this method was highly labourious and expensive, it is more realistic (Lomax et al., 2003). Then Tannabe et al (2007) undertook an integrated GPS and web diary in Nara, Japan. This study found that travelers might change their route to reduce the uncertainty in travel time. In addition, there was a positive correlation between coefficients of variation (CV) of the commuting routes. It is found that the appropriate functional hierarchy of road may be disturbed by the uncertainty of travel time. These findings suggest that a reliability index of travel time is very useful and important for evaluating both actual level of service (LOS) and functional hierarchy of road network. Recent travel time reliability research investigated the relationship between the traveler behavior and their response to the provision of travel information system while they experience high travel time variability. Asakura (1999) concluded that the Stochastic User Equilibrium model can generate the user route choice behavior based on the different levels of information provision. This study analyzed two different groups, the first group being the well informed users and the second the uninformed users. He concluded that providing better information can improve the transportation network reliability. In order to find out the different perspectives of travel time reliability for different persons with different purposes, Lo et al (2006) studied the notion of the travel time budget, in which each traveler seeks to minimize their own individual travel time budget (the amount of time that the individual is prepared to devote to travelling), which means the total travel time of the individual should not exceed their allocation of time to travel. To evaluate the link between the presence of ramps on motorways and travel time reliability, recent reliability network research has been undertaken in The Netherlands. Th is study analyzed whether the geometry of road network also affected the travel time reliability (Tu et al., 2007) by investigating the presence of ramps on six major. This study concluded that the presence of ramps in the road network has reduced the travel time reliability. Since road network reliability considers the probability of transportation system failures in how to meet performance parameters such as reasonable travel time and travel cost, level of service and the probability of connectivity of the transport network and lack of measuring the consequences of link failure to the community, the concept of road network vulnerability might be an alternative way to fill some of road network reliability deficiency, particularly in assessing the adverse socio-economic impact to community (Taylor et al. 2006). ROAD NETWORK VULNERABILITY Due to the potential socio-economic cost of degraded transport network to community, the concept of road vulnerability has been developed by researchers under transport network reliability umbrella. The definition of vulnerability has not yet been generally agreed. Several authors notion of the vulnerability focused on the negative events that significantly reduced the road network performance. Berdica (2002) defined the vulnerability as a susceptibility to incident that can result in a considerable in road network serviceability. The link /route/road serviceability described the possibility to use that link/route/road during a given period of time. Furthermore, since accessibility depend on the quality of the function of the transportation system, this concept relate to the adverse of the vulnerability in terms of reducing accessibility that occurs because of the different reasons. As the idea of network vulnerability relates to the consequences of link failure and the potential for adverse socio- economic impacts on the community (Taylor et al., 2006, Jenelius, 2007a), thus vulnerability can be defined in the following terms: 1. A node is vulnerable if loss (or substantial degradation) of a small number of links significantly diminishes the accessibility of the node, as measured by standard index of accessibility. 2. A network link is critical if loss (or substantial degradation) of the links significantly diminishes the accessibility of the network or of particular nodes, as measured by standard index of accessibility. Therefore, it can be concluded that road vulnerability assesses the weakness of road network to incidents as well as adverse impacts of the degraded road network serviceability on the community. In relation with the road network vulnerability definition which focuses on two different aspects; selecting critical road network elements and consequences of measurements, Jenelius (2007a) has identified that road network vulnerability assessment can be distinguished into two stages. The first stage is to select a critical link by identifying the road network likelihood and by quick scanning of wide road transport and the second one is measuring the consequences of link disruption to community. Based on previous works, different approach has been applied in order to scan wide road network. Jenelius et al ( et al., 2006) selected particular major arterial road which connect the district at the Northern Sweden to be the worst case scenario and selected road links randomly as the average case scenarios. Scott et al (2006) has also introduced topology index and the relation between capacity and volume then select the critical link. Indeed, Jenelius (2007a) has suggested that conducting comprehensive assessment of road network will be helpful for identifying roads that are probably affected by the traffic accident, flood and landslides. Berdica et al (2003) undertake a comprehensive study in order to test 3 types of software to mode l road network interruptions. This study simulated the short duration of incidents on University of Canterbury networks by using SATURN, TRACKS and Paramics. They modelled a total block of one link on the small network then run the model at the macroscopic level by using TRACKS, at mesoscopic level by using SATURN and at the microscopic level by using Paramics. Based on the simulation, the different packages gave different result in terms of their responsiveness to model the short incidents, for instance, Paramics might be considered as a suitable software package for short duration incidents because it is more responsive than other softwares. SATURN which is more detail in its formulation than TRACKS has less responsiveness than TRACKS. Given the lack of generally recognized measurement of road vulnerability, it has been common practice to consider measures such as the increase of the generalized travel cost, the changes of the accessibility index or the link volume/capacity ratio when one or more links were closed or degraded as road vulnerability measurement. Taylor et al (2006) studied the network vulnerability at the level of Australian national road network and the socio economic impact of degradable links in order to identify critical links within the road network, by using three different accessibility approaches. The study introduced the three indices for vulnerability. The first method was the measurement of the change of the generalized travel cost between the full network and the degraded one. This method has concluded that by degrading one particular link the generalized travel cost will increase, and then the links which gave the highest travel cost was determined as the most important link. The second method used the changes of the Hansen integral accessibility index (Hansen, 1959) in order to seek the critical links. It was assumed that the larger the changes were after cutting one link, the more critical that link was on the basis of the adver se socio-economic impacts on the community. The last approach considered the changes of the Accessibility/Remoteness index of Australia (DHAC, 2001). This method was similar to the second method which sought the critical link depending on the difference between the ARIA indices in the full network and the ARIA indices in degraded network. Moreover, Taylor et al (2006) also studied the application of the third approach at the regional level in the state of Western Australia. This study concluded that removing a link gave different impacts for the cities, for example, by cutting one link, the impacts on the several cities were only local, in contrast, other cities where they were available similarly alternative road performance did not give significant changes of the ARIA indices. Due to the importance of a particular link within the wide road network, Jenelius et al (2006) introduced a similar approach to Taylor et al (2006). They studied the link importance and the site exposure by measuring the increase in generalized travel cost in the road network of the Northern Sweden where the road networks were sparse and the traffic volumes were low. By assuming the incident was a single link being completely disrupted or closed so the generalized cost increases, then the most critical link of the operation of the whole system and the most vulnerable cities because of the link disruptions were determined. The study concluded that the effect of closing a link was quite local and the worst effect was in the region where the road network was sparser with fewer good alternative roads. This research suggests that the road network vulnerability assessment can be applied in road network planning and maintenance, to provide guidance to the road administration for road prioritization and maintenance. In addition, Taylor (2007) studied the road network vulnerability in South Australia road network which included all the freeways, highways and major main roads. This research used a large complex road network and evaluated the ARIA indices changes for about 161 locality centers with populations exceeding 200 people. This study found the top ten critical links in the South Australia regional road network. Moreover, in relation with vulnerability approach in D Este and Taylor (2003), Chen et al (2007) tries to assess the vulnerability of degradable networks by using the network based accessibility and by combining with a travel demand model. Their study concluded that themodel can consider both demand and supply changes under abnormal conditions. Thus the vulnerability network assessment can be measured by considering the duration of the disruption (increase the travel time) and modeling the user equilibrium both the cases when there are alternative roads or the case when there are not alternative roads (Jenelius, 2007b). Indeed, Scott (2005) introduced the measurement of the Network Robustness Index by considering the ratio between the link capacity and link volume and assigning topology index for each link then test whether the particular links can cope with the changes of the traffic demand when one or more links were closed or degraded (Scott et al., 2005). Jenelius (2007b) introduced the new method in order to incorporate dynamic road condition and information by assessing the increase travel time using the extended of the user equilibrium model. This study assumed that there was no congestion and there was at least one alternative route between the origin and destination. Further, this study also assumed that the road users have perfect road information about the length of road closure so that they can decide whether they need either to take a detour or to go back to their origin and wait until the road reopened. This method calculated the additional travel time which is calculated since the road users were informed about the road closure, the waiting time until the road reopened. The difference between the normal travel time and t he additional travel time due to road closure was assigned as the increase travel time. However, this study did not take into consideration the change of the travel flow at the alternative routes. This assumed that the mix of the current and diverted traffic can flow at the free flow. In order to assess the increase of the flow when the diverted traffic mix at the current traffic which already meet the capacity or are already congested, the study which conducted by Lam et al (2007) can be considered. This method introduced the path preference index which is the sum of the path travel time reliability index and the path travel time index. To examine road network vulnerability in an urban area, Berdica et al. (2007) studied the vulnerability of the Stockholm road network by examining 12 scenarios involving partial and total closure of selected links, including bridge failure. Also, it assessed the road network degradation in three different times of day, morning peak hour, middle of d ay and afternoon peak hour. This study concluded that by closing one link or all links as well as bridge failure would increase the total travel time and total trip length (on the assumption that travelers chose their minimum time route based on user equilibrium method). The model of different scenarios at different times gave different results but the most vulnerable links were the Essinge route and the failure of Western bridge scenario. To conclude this study calculated the increase of total travel time a day and then multiply that by 250 days to obtain the total increase travel time for yearly basis. Though the highest total travel time increase in only 8% per day, however if it is calculated by 35 SEK (travel cost per hour) it gave significant impact of total travel cost increase. However, it did not take into account the duration of the closure and left some discussion of link disruption impacted such as the effect of noise and pollution during the road closure. Moreover, Knoo p and Hoogendoon (2007) assess the spillback simulation in dynamic route choice in order to examine the spillback effects then evaluated the road network robustness and the vulnerability of links. This study concluded that it is necessary to assess the spillback effect in order to identify the most vulnerable link within the wide road network. Tampere (2007) investigated the vulnerability of highway sections in Brussels and Ghent. This work was quite challenging, it tried to consider the different aspect of the road network vulnerability criteria related to the amount of vehicle hours lost due to major incidents. This work compromised of two steps; the first one is the quick scanning of the most vulnerable link from the long list into short list by considering the several aspects and then by obtaining the short list links then the vulnerability measure was conducted. Since this method used the dynamic traffic assignment, there are some drawbacks during the model run such as the lack of traffic distribution after the occurrence of the incident which resulted an illogical of travelers route choice. In general this method has successfully measured the vulnerability by not only considering the traffic condition but also taking into account the different road networks. Though this method has not considered traffic assignment criteria, it is still considered as a refinement over similar studies Measures of Congestion used in Transportation Planning Measures of congestion are intended to evaluate the performance of the transportation network and to diagnose problem areas. They provide information on how well the system has met certain stated goals and targets, and can also help to explain variations in user experiences of the system. There are four general categories of congestion measures. The first category contains measures that explain the duration of congestion experienced by users in some way; these include delay, risk of delay, average speed, and travel time. The next category includes measures that analyze how well the system is functioning at a given location. This category primarily consists of the volume to capacity (V/C) ratio, which is usually expressed as a level-of-service (LOS) category. LOS is a performance rating that is often used as a technical way to express how well a facility is functioning. For example, a facility functioning poorly is likely to be rated as LOS F, but could just as easily be described as poor. The third category is that of spatial measures, including queue length, queue density, and vehicle miles traveled. It is important to note that some of the duration and spatial measures are actually measured as point measures. The final category of measures is the other category, consisting primarily of travel time reliability and the number of times a vehicle stops because of congested conditions. Easily the most common measure of traffic congestion is the volume-to-capacity ratio. The V/C ratio measures the number of vehicles using a facility against the number of vehicles that the facility was designed to accommodate. This ratio is an important measure for planners to use, and represents an easily understandable measure of whether or not a roadway is congested. However, it can lead to some philosophical problems, such as whether transportation systems should be built to handle the highest demand or the average demand, and what level of service is acceptable. In addition, it is difficult to accurately measure the capacity of a roadway. The volume-to-capacity ratio is an important tool for comparing a roadways performance to other roadways and over time, but does not necessarily reflect the overall user experience and values in the system. Despite the prevailing usage of the volume-to-capacity ratio, and perhaps because of its inherent philosophical difficulties, the (FHWA) ha s strongly encouraged agencies to consider travel time experienced by users as the primary source for congestion measurement. They also state that currently used measures of congestion are inadequate for determining the true impact of the congestion that clogs up the transportation system from a users perspective, and that they are not able to adequately measure the impacts of congestion mitigation strategies. What is travel time reliability? As mentioned in section 1.1.1, the OECD (2010) provides a general definition for Travel Time Reliability: The ability of the transport system to provide the expected level of service quality, upon which users have organized their activities. The key of this definition is that a route is reliable if the expectations of the user are in accordance with the experienced travel time. But this does not directly lead to a TTR measure. Nonetheless, this definition shows that user expectations should be taken into account when selecting a proper TTR measure. Congestion is common in many cities and few people will dispute this fact. Drivers become used to this congestion, always expecting and plan for some delay, especially in peak driving times. Most drivers budget for extra time to accommodate traffic delays or adjust their schedules. Traffic delays are mostly much worse than expected when it happens. All travelers are less tolerant of unpredicted delays, the effect is that it makes then to be late for work or vital meetings, miss appointment, or suffer additional childcare fees. Shippers and freight forwarders who experience unpredicted delay may lose money and interrupt just-in-time delivery and manufacturing processes. Traffic congestion used to be communicated only in terms of simple average in time past. Nevertheless most travelers experience and remember a different thing than the simple average as they commute within a year. Travelers travel time differ from day to day, and remember the few bad days they suffered through unexpect ed delays. Commuter build time cushion or buffer in planning their trip to account for the variability. The buffer helps them to arrive early on some days, though not a bad thing, but the additional time is carved out of their day time which could have been used to pursuit other activities than to commute. Travel time reliability time frames Travel Time Reliability can be categorized by its time frame. Bates et al. (2001) discusses three levels of variability: inter-day, inter-period and inter-vehicle. Martchouk et al. (2009) explains these as follows: Inter-day: Variations in the travel time pattern between days. Some days of the week might have substantially different traffic volumes than others. For example, a Sunday will generally have less traffic than a Monday. Same weekdays should have about the same travel time pattern, but there can still be variations. Also, events such as road works or inclement weather cause inter-day variations. Inter-period: Variations in travel times during a day. Many road sections have a morning and evening peak, during which travel times are larger. These variations are caused by variations in traffic volume. Inter-vehicle: Relatively small differences in travel times between vehicles in a traffic stream. These are caused by interactions between vehicles and variations in driver behavior, including lane changes and speed differences. Although Martchouk et al. (2009) shows that individual travel times on a motorway section can vary strongly in similar conditions, due to driver behavior, this study focuses on inter-day variations. It is assumed that inter-vehicle variations have no significant influence on Travel Time Reliability. In urban areas, the speed difference between vehicles will generally be smaller than on highways. The reasons for this are: the average speed on highways is higher, there is more overtaking, trucks cannot drive at the maximum allowed speed, and routes are longer. Inter-period variations are also not considered, because it is presumed that road users know that travel times within a day vary according to a more or less fixed pattern. It is the deviations from this daily pattern which are interesting in the light of TTR, since these cannot be predicted by road users. Therefore, the focus of this investigation is on inter-day variation. Why travel time reliability is important? Travel time reliability is vital to every user within the transportation system, whether they are freight shippers, transit riders, vehicle drivers and even air travelers. Reliability allows business travelers and personal to make better use of the own time. Because reliability is so significant for transportation planners, transportation system users, and decision makers should consider travel time reliability as a key measure of performance Traffic management and operation activities is better quantified and beneficial to traffic professionals by the use of travel time reliability than simple average. For instants take into consideration a typical before and after study that attempts to quantify the benefits of an accident management or ramp material program. The development in average time may seem to be modest. However reliability measure will show a much greater development because they show the effect of improving the worst few days of unexpected delay. The Beginning of Travel Time Reliability as a Performance Measure Hellinga (2011) states that in the past, analysis of transportation networks focused primarily on the estimation and evaluation of average conditions for a given time period. These average conditions might be expressed in terms of average traffic stream speed; average travel time between a given origin and destination pair; or some average generalized cost to travel from an origin to a destination. This generalized cost typically includes terms reflecting time as well as monetary costs. These terms are summed by multiplying the time based measures by a value of time coefficient. A common characteristic of all of these approaches is that they reflect average or expected conditions and do not reflect the impact of the variability of these conditions. One reason for this is that models become much more complicated when this variability would be included. Also, a vast amount of data from a long period of time is needed. Unfortunately, collecting data is often costly and time-consuming. H ellinga (2011) also observes that more recently, there has been an increasing interest in the reliability of transportation networks. It is hypothesized that reliability has value to transportation network users and may also impact user behavior. Influence on traveler behavior may include: destination choice, route choice, time of departure choice, and mode choice. It is useful for road managers and planners to have knowledge about the relations between TTR and road user behavior, because this can be used to predict or even deliberately influence this behavior by applying traffic management measures. Consequently, there has been an effort to better understand the issues surrounding reliability, and to answer a number of important questions such as: 1. How is transportation network reliability defined? 2. How can/should network reliability be measured in the field? 3. What factors influence reliability and how? 4. What instruments are available to network managers, policy makers, and network users that impact reliability and what are the characteristics of these causal relationships? 5. What is the value of reliability to various transportation network users (e.g. travelers, freight carriers, etc.) and how is this value affected by trip purpose? 6. How do transportation network users respond to reliability in terms of their travel behavior? (E.g. departure time choice, mode choice, route choice etc.) 7. How can reliability (and its effects) be represented within micro and macro level models? (Microscopic models focus on individual vehicles, while macroscopic models pertain to the properties of the traffic flow as a whole.) 8. How important is it to consider the impact of reliability in transportation project benefit/cost evaluations? 9. Does the consideration of the impact of reliability within the project evaluation process alter the order of preference of projects within the list of candidate projects? Hellinga (2011) states that the above list of questions, which is likely not exhaustive, indicates that there currently exists a very large knowledge gap with respect to reliability. Various research efforts around the world are beginning to fill in these gaps, but the body of knowledge is still relatively sparse and there is not yet even general agreement on terminology. Note that the first, second, and (partially) fifth question are part of this investigation What measures are used to quantify travel time reliability? The four recommended measures includes 90th or 95th percentile travel time, buffer index, planning time index, and frequency that congestion exceeds some expected threshold. These measurements are emerging practices, some of